An Outline of Western Zhou History - Spring and Autumn: A Period of Disintegration - The Ba Hegemonial System: From Lord Protector to Overlord - The Era of the Warring States: Coalitions to Rule the World - The Victory of the Legist Central State of Qin and the Foundation of the Chinese Empire An Outline of Western Zhou History The Western Zhou (Xizhou 西周) period is a highlight of moral government and enlightened rule in the thinking of the Confucianists. In the Zhou Dynasty's eyes, heaven-appointed King Wen "the Cultured" 周文王 received the heavenly mandate (tianming 天命) of overthrow the depraved last king of the Shang Dynasty 商. Shang oracle bones and careful examination of the historical texts instead show that the conquest of the Shang area was mere a result of the general eastern expansion of the Zhou people. Myths of the moving of the capital from Bin 豳 (or 邠) to Qishan 岐山 or Hao 鎬 are proved archeologically. Around 1150 BC, the Zhou moved from the Fen River 汾水 valley in modern Shanxi to the Wei River 渭水 valley in Shaanxi where they settled among the Rong 戎 and Di 狄 barbarians. Although the Zhou people had to carry out permanent fights with their western neighbors, their power gradually grew and finally endangered the existence of the old royal line of the Shang Dynasty at Yin 殷 (modern Anyang 安陽/Henan). The Shang ruler Zhou (Zhow) 紂 took Ji Chang 姬昌 (posthumous title Zhou Wenwang 周文王 - see titles of rulers), chieftain of the Zhou, prisoner but later relieved him and enfeoffed him as viscount of the west (Xibo 西伯). King Zhou (Zhow) was blamed of being a brutal tyrant that killed loyal ministers like Bi Gan 比干. Many of the feudal lords changed side and aligned with the Zhou viscount in the west who were lead now by Ji Fa 姬發 (posthumous Zhou Wuwang 周武王), son of Ji Chang. He attacked the kingdom of Shang, crossed the Mengjin Ford 孟津 of the Yellow River and defeated the Shang army at Muye 牧野. King Zhou (Zhow) burned himself, and his kingdom was conquered by the armies of Zhou and their allies from the west, among them many Non-Chinese tribes like Shu 蜀, Qiang 羌 (Tibetian), and Pu 濮. Archeological sources make evident that the overthrow of the Shang house must have occurred very suddenly and almost without any previous indications. The central region (jinei 畿內) was divided into three fiefs, Bei 邶 (King Zhow's surviving son Fulu 父祿, later King Wu's brother Huoshu 霍叔), Yong 鄘 (King Wu's brother Guanshu Xian 管叔鮮), and Wei 衛 (King Wu's brother Caishu Du 蔡叔度). These three people rebelled after King Wu's death, when their brother, Duke Dan of Zhou 周公旦 (the Duke of Zhou) took over regency for the minor King Ji Song 姬誦 (posthumous King Chengwang 周成王). After the suppression of the rebellion, an eastern capital was erected at Luoyi 雒邑 (modern Luoyang 洛陽/Henan) called Chengzhou "Completion of the Zhou", while the old capital at Hao 鎬 (near Xi'an 西安/Shaanxi) was called Zongzhou 宗周 "Ancestral Zhou". Duke Dan of Zhou (Zhou Gong Dan) 周公旦 and Duke Shi of Shao 召公奭 assisted the young ruler King Chengwang 周成王 in government. The later tradition sees in Duke Dan a founder of Chinese civilisation, more than the Zhou kings. The Duke of Zhou is mystified as the solicitous prince regent, as composer of canonical writings, and as an inventor of cultural achievements (state rituals and music, laws and regulations). The Zhou kingdom stretched now from modern Shaanxi to the Shandong peninsula and the Beijing area. During the reign of the Kings Chengwang 周成王 and Kangwang 周康王 the kingdom was divided into many fiefs that were bestowed to people belonging to the royal clan of Ji 姬 (fiefs of Guo 虢, Guan 管, Cai 蔡, Cheng 郕, Huo 霍, Wei 衛, Mao 毛, Dan 聃, Gao 郜, Yong 雍, Cao 曹, Teng 滕, Bi 畢, Yuan 原, Feng 酆, Xun 郇, Yu 邘, Jin 晉, Ying 應, Han 韓, Lu 魯, Fan 凡, Jiang 蔣, Xing 邢, Mao 茅, Zuo 胙, Ji (Zhai) 祭, Yan 燕) but also of other meritorious families like the Jiang 姜 (Qi 齊) and Zi 子 (Song 宋; descendants of the Shang). Concerning the ethnology of Western Zhou China, we have to remark that the feudal territories were not much more than walled cities. Between these regions still lived and dwelled many Non-Zhou or Non-Chinese peoples. Under the reigns of King Kangwang 周康王, King Zhaowang 周昭王 and King Muwang 周穆王 the Zhou kingdom was internally cemented, but campaigns against the Non-Zhou neighbors in the west, east and south lead to political exhaustion of the royal house. In the east, the Zhou fought against the peoples of Xu 徐 and the Huaiyi 淮夷 (modern Jiangsu), in the south against Chu 楚 and Jing 荊, and in the west against the Quanrong 犬戎 and Xianyun 玁狁. During a southern campaign, King Zhaowang died in the floods of River Han 漢水, but King Muwang achieved great successess against the west. His personal participation in the western campaigns is reflected in the late Warring States 戰國 novel Mu tianzi zhuan 穆天子傳. After these initial powerful demonstrations, the central power of the house of Zhou declined under the Kings Gongwang 周共王, Yiwang (Yihwang) 周懿王, Xiaowang 周孝王, and Yiwang 周夷王. The reign of King Liwang 周厲王 was even ended in 841 by a rebellion of several feudal lords. During the following period of the Gonghe 共和 "Common Appeasement" interregnum (841-822; or: Count He of Gong? 共國和伯) the Dukes Zhou of Lu 魯周公 and Shao of Yan 燕召公 again ruled for the infant king who is known with his posthumous title King Xuanwang 周宣王. King Xuanwang rewarded some important chieftains that helped hims against military pressure as feudal lords, the most important among these new fiefs were Qin 秦 in the west and Xie 謝 and Zheng 鄭 in the east. King Youyang 周幽王 was assisted by Guo Shifu 虢石父 as regent who had a bad influence on the king, like the king's consort Baosi 褒似. Crown prince Yijiu 宜臼 was degraded and fled to Shen 申 from where he sought support among the feudal lords and the "barbarious" Xianyuan 玁狁. He attacked King Youwang, and the usurper, Prince Yuchen 余臣, was killed by the army of Jin 晉. The Xianyun meanwhile attacked and looted the capital and forced the Zhou elite in 770 to leave the western capital and to settle down east in Chengzhou, an event that for the first time proved the military superiority of the steppe warriors over the settled agriculturist Chinese. The following later half of the Zhou period is called "Eastern Zhou" (Dongzhou 東周). With the help of feudal lords like Shen, Lu, and Xu 許, Prince Ji Yijiu 姬宜臼 became the new king (posthumous Zhou Pingwang 周平王), the first ruler of the Eastern Zhou in Luoyang. The case of King Youwang 周幽王 gives nourishment to the Confucian writers who blame him to have followed the words of his consort Baosi, thus making him equal to King Zhou (Zhow) 商王紂 of the Shang Dynasty and tyrant Jie 夏王桀 of the mythical Xia Dynasty. King You had established a warning system of towers that had to light a fire when the barbarians would attack. Baosi abused this system just for fun. When the Quanrong nomads 犬戎 (i.e. Xuanyuan) really attacked, nobody hurried to the weapons. The fleeing Zhou elite had to dig their precious bronze vessels in hoards, a great luck for today's archeologists. Spring and Autumn: A Period of Disintegration One of the oldest traditional texts of China is the chronical of the state of Lu 魯 (the Chunqiu 春秋 classic), beginning in 722 BC and stretching down to 481 BC. It covers political events not only of the mere small state of Lu itself and the internal history during the reign of twelve dukes, but it gives also account of the major states of Qi 齊, Jin 晉, Qin 秦 and Chu 楚 that dominated the politics of these three centuries. The entries in the Lu chronicle are regularly noted down per year and per season, thus giving the whole historical period the name of "Spring and Autumn" (Chunqiu 春秋時代). Historically seen, the period started when the Zhou rulers had to flee from their western territories in 770 BC and moved their base from Zongzhou 宗周 (near modern Xi'an 西安/Shaanxi) to Chengzhou 成周 (or Luoyi 雒邑/modern Luoyang 洛陽/Henan) in the Yellow River Plain ("Central Plain" Zhongyuan 中原), furthermore not being able to expand their domains. The end of the period came, when the few states taking over the de facto rule of old China, disintegrated by intern quarrels and gave up their decade-long politics of (almost) peaceful coexistence during the middle of the 5th century BC. The second great historical writing of the Spring and Autumn period is the collection Guoyu 國語 "Discourses of the States", which accounts anecdotes of the states Zhou, Lu, Qi, Jin, Zheng, Chu, Wu 吳 and Yue 越. Said to be a composition of Zuo Qiuming 左丘明 (because much of the material is similar to the Annals of Zuo 春秋左傳, a kind of complement to the Spring and Autumn Annals), its oldest parts must have been compiled at the end of the 5th century BC. The most important intellectual person of this historical period is the philosopher Confucius (Kongzi 孔子; ca. 551-479) who tried to revive the ideal of the human and righteous rulers of the old. Although his ideas seemed lost in a time of political realism his thoughts should become the inherent doctrine of imperial China. See more about Confucian thought. The ba 霸 Hegemonial System: From Lord Protector to Overlord The fleeing Zhou elite had no strong foothold in the eastern territories. The Zhou kings had to rely on the help of their neighbour states not even to protect themselves from raids by other powers but also to solve intern power struggles. The first lord to help the Zhou kings was Duke Zhuang of the state of Zheng 鄭莊公 (r. 743-701). He was the first to establish the system of hegemonial rulers (ba 霸), which was intended to keep up the old feudal system once founded by King Wuwang of Zhou 周武王 in the 11th century BC. Later historians said it was intended to protect the original Chinese states from the intruding barbarian tribes Man 蠻, Rong 戎 and Yi 夷. But in fact, all states of old China had a multi-ethnic population, which could not really be divided into Chinese and Non-Chinese. Tribes that were ethnically and culturally different from the ruling elite were scattered all over the country. Duke Zhuanggong of Zheng defeated intruding Rong 戎 tribes and swallowed the neighboring state of Xu 許. In 707 King Huanwang of Zhou 周桓王 (r. 719-697) started a punitive expedition but he was defeated by Duke Zhuanggong. From now on the kings of Zhou never tried to intervene into the politics of their own feudal lords. They stayed in their small royal domain around Luoyang 洛陽 and had to be content with the tributes of the feudal lords that were presented less and less regularly. Besides Zheng, the states of Song 宋 and Lu 魯 demonstrated their military and political power in the Central Plain 中原. In the east, the state of Qi 齊 had rich natural ressources and should be develop to one of the mightiest feudal states of the Zhou period. Duke Huan of Qi 齊桓公 (r. 685-643) employed the legist statesman Guan Zhong 管仲 as his adviser who reorganized, administration, military and financial system. Through these reforms, Qi was able to subdue Song and Lu and even the hegemonial state of Zheng. At that time, the Non-Chinese nomadic tribes of the Rong and Di 狄 made their raids on the soil of Chinese states and devastated the states of Xing 邢 and Wei 衛 (modern Shanxi and Hebei). Duke Huangong of Qi rescued the leadership of these states and settled them down more to the south. The system of the hegemon thus developed to a kind of lord protector of a strong state over weaker ones, and Qi promised to protect the states in the Central Plain against further intrusion of the northern nomad warriors. In the south, the state of Chu 楚 on the middle Yangtse River had become politically stronger than before. King Cheng of Chu 楚成王 (r. 671-626) started to challenge the hegemony of Qi and swallowed smaller states in his neighborship. Nonetheless, subservient states like Jiang 江 and Huang 黃 changed side and declared their sympathy with Qi. Chu thereupon attacked Zheng. Duke Huangong assembled loyal states and created an alliance with Lu, Song, Chen and Wei to punish Chu in 656 by devastating the state of Cai 蔡, a follower of Chu. Chu gave in, and the ambassadors of the two mighty states met at Shaoling 召陵 (modern Yancheng 郾城/Henan) to close a friendly alliance (meng 盟). In 651 Qi organized a meeting at Kuiqiu 葵丘 (modern Lankao 蘭考/Henan) whith the representants of Lu, Song, Zheng, Wei and Zhou participating. The meeting decided that states creating a friendly alliance should never attack each other, and that they had to assist each other if one partner should be attacked by an enemy. The Duke of Qi thus became the overlord over the weaker states of Zhou China and replaced the king of Zhou as the highest judicial person. After the death of Duke Huangong of Qi several feudal lords strove for overlordship. Duke Song Xianggong 宋襄公 (r. 650-637) was defeated by Chu, and the state of Song lost its last chance to rise to political and military significance. Instead, another state rose to supremacy in old China: Duke Xiangong of Jin 晉獻公 (r. 676-651) extended the power of his state by swallowing the smaller fiefs of Geng 耿, Huo 霍, Wei 魏 (a state that should later one of the three destructors of Jin), Guo 虢 and Yu 虞. After a decade of inner struggle, the state of Qin 秦 helped Duke Wen of Jin 晉文公 (r. 636-628) ascending the throne of Jin. Similar to Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin employed political advisors, Zhao Shuai 趙衰 and Hu Yan 狐偃 who strengthened the national economy and thus the state. In 635 the King of Zhou, Xiangwang 周襄王, escaped from inner disturbances to Zheng. Duke Wen of Jin saw his chance, rescued the king and accompanied him back to the royal domain, highly rewarded by the King. The next step for the Duke should be to challenge the power of Chu, the state that had dominated the Central Plain since the death of Duke Huan of Qi. In 632 the two states clashed at the battle of Chengpu 城濮 (modern Zhencheng 甄城/Shandong), Chu was defeated. Duke Wen of Jin established a new friendly alliance during the meeting at Jiantu 踐土 (modern Yingze 滎澤/Henan) with the seven most important states, in the same year, at Wen 溫 (modern Wenxian 溫縣/Henan) the King of Zhou sanctified the new overlord hegemon. His successor, Duke Xiang 晉襄公 (r. 627-621), was able to prolong the hegemonial prevalence of the state of Jin. But during his reign, Duke Mu of Qin 秦穆公 (r. 659-621) opened a long period of military confrontation between Jin and Qin, but Qin seldom won any battle. The powerful state of Jin blocked the gate to the Central Plain, and Qin could not but expand its territory to the west into the territory of the Western Rong 西戎 and establish good relations with Chu in the south. Chu meanwhile further expanded its territory by conquering the minor states of Jiang 江, Liu 六, and Liao 蓼. After the death of Duke Xiang of Jin, the noble Zhao Zhi 趙質 dominated the throne succession of Jin, murdered Duke Linggong 晉靈公 (r. 620-607) and enthroned Duke Chenggong 晉成公 (r. 606-600). During this period, Jin lost its initiative in foreign politics. The political advisor Fan Shan 范山 proposed to King Muwang of Chu 楚穆王 (r. 625-614) to take the chance and to advance against north. King Zhuangwang of Chu 楚莊王 (r. 613-591) had to resolve internal quarrels and uprisings of aboriginal tribes before he was able to reform economic and military administration and to resume this expansion politics. In 606 the southern King sent out an envoy to the court of King Dingwang of Zhou 周定王 (r. 606-586) to express his will to swallow the royal domain of Zhou. In 598 King Zhuangwang crushed the small state of Chen 陳, one year later the state of Zheng. At the battle of Bi 邲 (near modern Zhengzhou 鄭州/Henan) the army of the former hegemonial state of Jin was defeated. A few years later, Chu defeated the state of Song and obained the overlordship over the Central Plain. The protecting task of the overlord had gradually lost its original intention to become a system of hegemony of one major state over weak satellites of Chinese and "barbarian" origin. The attitude to help small states during internal quarrels and against "barbarian" invaders changed to regular intervention into political affairs to the advantage of the great states. The state of Qi observed the growing power of Chu, declared a friendly relationship with the southern king - the only feudal lord being king except the King of Zhou. Qi permanently attacked the smaller states of Lu and Wei that sought support with the former hegemonial state of Jin. In 589 the army of Jin fought with Qi at the battle of An 鞍 (modern Jinan 濟南/Shandong) and again demonstrated its superior military power, drawing Qi to among its allies. Chu instantly declared war, but neither Chu nor Jin dared to rush into battle. After long years of hesitations and negotiations (under the stipulation of Jin's political advisor Song Huayuan 宋華元) Chu first attacked Zheng and Wei in 576. One year later the armies of the two hegemonial states fought at the battle of Yanling 鄢陵 (modern Yanling/Henan), and Jin took the victory by a narrow margin. Duke Ligong of Jin 晉厲公 (r. 580-573) saw his chance to resume hegemony, murdered his mightiest noblemen Xi Zhi 郤至, Xi Ji 郤犄 and Xi Chou 郤犨. But instead of strengthening his own position, Duke Ligong face serious opposition of other feudal lords like Luan Shu 欒書 and Zhongxing Yan 中行偃 who killed their duke. Under the next duke, Daogong 晉悼公 (r. 572-558), the internal situation calmed down, and the duke was able to strengthen the position of the state of Jin. His political advisor Wei Jiang 魏絳 proposed to appease the nomad warriors of the Rong 戎 with financial tributes instead of fighting them. In 571 Jin erected a fortification wall at Hulao 虎牢 (moder Fanshui 氾水/Henan) against the state of Zheng that was backed by Chu. After more than two decades of relative peace the political advisor Song Xiangxu 宋向戌 proposed to organize a peace conference to end military conflict ("pause the weapons" mibing 弭兵). It was held in the capital of Jin in 546 and the participating 14 states decided to accept the overlordship of the two states of Jin and Chu. Their adherents had to declare their subjection under the respective overlordship and had to present tributes to the two hegemons. Among the participating states, there should be ten years of peace, and for more than fourty years, Jin and Chu should not meet at the battle field. Only two of the larger states did not participate: Qi and Qin. The old kingdom of Zhou had totally lost its political role. The tribute once payed to the kings of Zhou was now offered to the dukes of Jin and Chu. If a small state did not pay tribute (gongfu 貢賦) it had to expect military sanctions. Especially precarious was the role of the state of Lu that had to maintain good relationships to the three states Jin, Chu and Qi if it did not want to be swallowed. Very similar was the role of Zheng that was directly in the line of fire between Jin and Chu. But states like Lu also imitated the overlordship of their own masters and demanded tributes from even smaller states like Teng 滕, Qi 杞 and Ceng 鄫. During the relatively peaceful 6th century, the two southern coastal states Wu 吳 and Yue 越 emerged as new powers. Jin saw its chance to open a second flank against Chu, and in 583 Duke Wuchen of Shen 申公巫臣 was sent to Wu in order to seek a military alliance. The semi-barbarian state of Wu was equipped with military tools and Wu soldiers were trained to attack Chu. But it was only more than half a century later that Wu became a serious threat to Chu after swallowing the small state of Xu 徐. Under King Helü 闔閭 (r. 514-496) the political advisor Wu Yuan 伍員 proposed to raise three armies that clockwise should skirmish at the borders of Chu to weaken this state. In 506 finally the whole army of Wu attacked Chu and defeated Chu at Baiju or Boju 柏舉 (modern Macheng 麻城/Hubei). In pursuit of the escaping troops the army of Wu advanced to the capital of Chu, Yingdu 郢都 (modern Jiangling 江陵/Hebei). King Zhaowang of Chu 楚昭王 had to take his flight and sought for help in Qin. This western state sent out chariots that expelled the invaders from Wu. Wu's neighboring state of Yue 越 took the advantage of the prolonged campaigns of Wu against Chu and invaded its northern neighbor. In 496 Wu fielded its troops for a punitive expedition but King Helü died during the battle at Zuili 檇李 (modern Jiaxing 嘉興/Zhejiang). Two years later King Fucha 夫差 of Wu 吳 (r. 495-473) defeated Yue during the revenge battle at Fujiao 夫椒 (modern Suzhou 蘇州/Jiangsu). Goujian 句踐, king of Yue (r. 496-465), had to take his flight to Mount Guiji 會稽山 (south of modern Shaoxing 紹興/Zhejiang). Although Fucha's advisor Wu Yuan proposed to destroy the state of Yue, the king of Yue was content with his successful battle and the destruction of the capital of Yue. After the defeat of Chu and Yue, King Fucha turned his attention to the north. He had built a fortification wall at Han 邗 (near modern Yangzhou 揚州/Jiangsu) and dug out canals that should connect the Yangtse River 長江 with the Huai River 淮水 valley, creating a traffic way to the north. The small states of Lu and Zhu 邾 declared themselves subjects to Wu. In the years 485 and 484 Wu several times attacked the state of Qi by land and by sea and finally defeated Qi at the battle of Ailing 艾陵 (modern Laiwu 萊蕪/Shandong). Wu called the states of the Central Plain to a meeting at Huangchi 黃池 (modern Fengqiu 封丘/Henan). Jin, weakened by internal struggles, did not dare to challenge the new powerful state of Wu, and King Fucha became the new hegemon. Just during the conference of Huangchi, King Goujian of Yue took the chance and invaded the capital of Wu. The overstretched military power of the state of Wu was unable to widthstand the southern opponent who had rebuilt its strength after the defeit of Guiji. In 473 Yue destroyed the state of Wu and replaced it as the dominating power of the southeast, King Goujian 句踐 of Yue 越 was the last of the Five Hegemons (Wuba 五霸). The Five Hegemons are also calle the Five Counts (Wu Bo 五伯). Different literary sources and commentaries identify them with different persons, the traditional definition by Zhao Qi 趙岐 defines them as Duke Huan of Qi 齊桓公, Duke Wen of Jin 晉文公, Duke Mu of Qin 秦穆公, Duke Xiang of Song 宋襄公, and King Zhuang of Chu 楚莊王. The Xunzi 荀子 identifies them with Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, King Zhuang of Chu, King Helü of Wu 吳王闔閭 and King Goujian of Yue 越王句踐. At the begin of the second third of the 5th century BCE it was four states that dominated old China: Chu 楚 in the south, Yue 越 in the southwest, Jin 晉 in the north, and Qi 齊 in the east. But things should change soon: Inner conflicts should topple two of the reigning houses (Jin and Qi), new powers should emerge (Wei 魏, Zhao 趙 and Han 韓), and reforms in the state administration should create a new kind of feudal state: the centralized state with a strengthened national economy and a professional army. The state Lu was the first to feel the power of the noble clans (qing dafu 卿大夫) of the Three Huan Sanhuan 三桓 (descendants of Duke Huangong 魯桓公), the Jisun 季孫, Mengsun 孟孫 (Zhongsun 仲孫) and Shusun 叔孫. From the time of Duke Xigong 魯僖公 (r. 659-627) on these three clans dominated the state of Lu, Duke Zhaogong 魯昭公 (r. 541-510) even had to escape from their intrigues and died abroad. Only at the begin of the 5th century, minor nobles like that of Nankuai 南蒯, Yanghu 陽虎 and Houfan 侯犯 rebelled against the mighty clans and took over the rule of Lu. Descendants of the Dukes of Song fought for the domination within the small state: the clans of Hua 華, Yue 樂, Lao 老, Huang 皇 (descentants of Duke Daigong 宋戴公, r. 799-766), Yu 魚, Dang 蕩, Lin 鱗 and Xiang 向 (descendants of Duke Huangong 宋桓公, r. 681-651). In the permanent power struggles only the clans of Yue and Huang survived the Spring and Autumn period. The seven descendant clans of Duke Mugong of Zheng 鄭穆公 (r. 627-606) also gradually lost their power in the course of the Spring and Autum period. In Qi the government was lead by the nobles of the clans of Guo 國, Gao 高, Cui 崔 and Qing 慶. In this state it was a clan not relative to the duke that should take over the power in Qi: the Tian 田 clan, descendants of the dukes of Chen. Under Duke Jinggong 齊景公 (r. 547-490) Tian Qi 田乞 was ennobled and from this position collected wealth and power enough to annihilate the ducal clans of Guo and Gao. His son Tian Chang 田常 was already wealthier than the Duke himself and sent his ambassadors to the neighboring states. His descendants should replace the reigning house in Qi. The most tremendous power challenge from within took place in the state of Jin where descendants of the ducal line were not enfeoffed as nobles. But this measure did not prevent other noble clans from trying to dominate the court of Jin: Hu 狐, Zhao 趙, Xian 先, Xi 郤 and Xu 胥 were the dominating noble clans of the middle Spring and Autumn period, later replaced by the clans of Han 韓, Wei 魏, Luan 欒, Fan 范 and Xun 荀. At the begin of the 5th century the noble clans of Zhao, Wei, Han, Fan, Zhongxing 中行 and Zhi 智 survived the internal struggle. The three first could destroy the last three and should dissolve the dukedom of Jin, dividing the territory among themselves. The Era of the Warring States: Coalitions to Rule the World A very intensified warfare, not in number of battles, but in length and professionalism of the particular campaigns gave this period its name. The old army of a fighting aristocracy was replaced by a general (jiangjun 將軍) led infantry (bubing 步兵), with peasants pressed to be human material and commanders almost being independent from their lord. New weapons like halberds (ji 戟) and crossbows (nu 弩) came up, chariots (zhanche 戰車), cavalry (qibing 騎兵) and archers supported the armor and iron helmet protected infantry. The warring states erected garrisons and fortification walls (changcheng 長城) along their frontiers, military advisors tried to defeat foreign armies. The armies of the Warring States were much larger than before. The state of Zhao 趙 fielded more than 40.000 men to fight Qin 秦, Qin itself recruited 60.000 soldiers for the war against Chu 楚. The objective was to destroy as much military force as possible, some prolonged battles saw more than ten thousand casualties. War costs were correspondingly high and could only be supplied if the fighting state had a prospering economy. Experience and urgency lead to a development of more advanced weapons and fighting techniques. States like Han 韓 and Chu were the first to produce quality iron and steel weapons. Wandering persuaders (the most famous being Su Qin 蘇秦) proposed the best alliances ("horizontal and vertical" zongheng 縱橫) with and against other states. In this time of political division, a great diversity of thinkers (called the "Hundred Schools" baijia 百家) tried to persue different rulers to make their best way. The Warring States Period began with the brutal extinguishing of the ruling house of Qi 齊 (the Jiang 姜 clan) by the house of Tian 田. The Tian clan took over the rulership of Qi in 481 BC. In the small state of Lu 魯, already in 562 BC the three Huan 桓 families had usurped the power of the house of Ji 姬 without replacing it. At the begin of the 5th century, five noble families in the state of Jin 晉 began to engage in a civil war for the rulership of this state. Three of them, the clans Wei 魏, Han 韓 (sometimes written "Hann" to distinguish it from the Han 漢 Dynasty) and Zhao 趙, finally overcame their rivals and founded their own states, destroying and dividing Jin. In 424 BC they mutually recognized their independence. The king of Zhou only recognized this partition in 403 BC. Rise and decline of the state of Wei A century later, when the different states had already begun many of their interal strucural reforms, the marquis of Wei was the first ruler to call himself king (wang 王): King Huiwang of Liang 梁惠王 (r. 379-335). During the reign of the Marquis Wenhou 魏文侯 (r. 424-387) and Wuhou 魏武侯 (r. 386-371) Wei had expanded to east and west, destroyed the shortlived state of Zhongshan 中山 in 408 and several times defeated Qin with the generals Li Kui 李悝 and Wu Qi 吳起. In the mid-4th century Wei had become the dominating state of the Central Plain 中原, attacked Song 宋, Wey 衛, Han and Zhao. In 353 Wei sacked Handan 邯鄲 (modern Handan/Hebei), the capital of Zhao but was then defeated at Guiling 桂陵 (modern Caoxian 曹縣/Shandong) by Qi that supported Zhao. In 344 Wei organized a state conference at Fengze 逢澤 (near modern Kaifeng 開封/Henan) and forced the feudal lords to assemble at the Mengjin Ford 孟津 to cherish the king of Zhou. But at the same time, the marquis of Wei (posthumous title Liang Huiwang - see titles of rulers) declared himself king, being the first among the Chinese feudal states to adopt the royal title. The highlight of the new king's power did not last for long: In the battle of Maling 馬陵 (near modern Fanxian 范縣/Henan) in 341 Qi (lead by Tian Ji 田忌 and Sun Bin 孫臏) destroyed the army of Wei (lead by Prince Shen 太子申 and Pang Yuan 龐涓) and shortly after lost territories to Qin in the west. Again, Qin sent out Shang Yang 商鞅 and again defeated Wei that had to shift its capital to the east. In 334 King Huiwang of Wei (during his reign also called Liang 梁) met with the ruler of Qi (posthumous King Wei of Qi 齊威王, r. 378-343) and accepted the eastern lord as king. Wei and Qi were now the to dominating states of the Central Plain. After the death of King Huiwang, Wei gradually lost its dominant position under the increasing attacks of Qin from the west. The growing power of Qin Strengthened by the reforms of Shang Yang under Duke Xiaogong 秦孝公 (r. 361-338) Qin had become a serious opponent for the states in the Central Plain. In 325 the duke of Qin declared himself king (posthumous King Huiwen of Qin 秦惠文王, r. 337-311). But Gongsun Yan 公孫衍 from Wei proposed to forge an alliance against the newcomer. Zhao, Han, Yan 燕 and Chu united with Wei but were defeated by Qin. The wolf from the west year by year made attacks on the soil of Zhao, Han and Wei and proved its definitive military superiority. The next step was to defeat Chu, the powerful state of the south. Chu lost several battles and had to give up much territory. In the west, Qin successully fought against the Rong 戎 tribes of Yiqu 義渠 and opened the way to the Gansu corridor 甘肅走廊. In 316, internal quarrels had weakened the Non-Chinese state of Shu 蜀 in the Sichuan Basin 四川盆地. Qin took its chance and occupied the fertile region. The competition of Yan and Qi The state of Yan in the northeast (around modern Beijing) was likewise weakened by interal succession struggles when Qi decided to send out Tian Zhang 田章 with an army to conquer some territory of Yan. After two months of warfare in 314 Qi destroyed the army of Yan but withdrew because of further resistance. The King of Zhao, Wulingwang 趙武靈王 (r. 325-299), rescued the Prince of Yan and enthroned him (posthumous Yan Zhaowang 燕昭王, r. 311-279). With the assistance of Yue Yi 樂毅 the state of Yan was able to gain back its economical and military strength. Qi as the powerful state in the east united Han, Wei and Qin to attack Chu in the south in 301, Chu was defeated. Five years later, Qi made an alliance with Han, Wei, Zhao and Song to punish Qin, and for the first time, Qin was defeated and had to give back usurped territory. In the battle of Huan zhi Qu 桓之曲 Qi again defeated the army of Yan. In 288 Qi and Qin decided to proclaim themselves as emperors, Qin being the Emperor of the West (Xidi 西帝), Qi being the Emperor of the East (Dongdi 東帝). Two years later, Qi destroyed Song that had still been quite strong until then. Zou 鄒 and Lu immediately declared their loyalty to Qi. In 284 Yan united the states Wei, Han, Zhao, Qin and Chu to attack Qi. Qi was defeated, the capital occupied, and the king was murdered, the state had to cease the small city of Ju 莒. General Tian Dan 田單 took revenge when the new ruler of Yan, King Huiwang 燕惠王 (r. 278-272) replaced Yue Yi by Qi Jie 騎劫. Tian Dan defeated Qi Jie, reconquered Ju and lead King Xiang of Qi 齊襄王 (r. 283-265) back to the capital. The downfall of Chu and the rise of Zhao The "barbarian" state of Chu, populous and fertile, had become one of the most powerful states of the Warring States era and reached its apogee with the destruction of the state of Yue under King Huaiwang 楚懷王 (r. 328-299). Chu, Qin and Qi competed for the domination in China. King Huaiwang was allured to visit the court of Qin, was taken as hostage and died far from his homelands as prisoner in the west. His successor was unable to govern the paralyzed state of the south, and the Qin general Sima Cuo 司馬錯 attacked Chu from the Sichuan Basin that Qin had occupied some decades earlier. Two years later general Bai Qi 白起 took the capital of Chu, Ying 郢 (modern Jiangling 江陵/Hubei) and advanced further to the Dongting Lake 洞庭湖. King Qingxiangwang 楚頃襄王 (r. 298-263) fled to Chen 陳. The occupied territories were transformed into Qin commanderies (jun 郡). The Victory of the Legist Central State of Qin and the Foundation of the Chinese Empire The state of Zhao was the northernmost of the Central Plain. While the main battles between the particular states were fought in the south of Zhao, King Wulingwang 趙武靈王 (r. 325-299) tried to enlarge the wealth of his state by expanding to the north that was roamed by nomadic tribes of the Linhu 林胡 and Loufan 樓煩 (see Hu 胡). He established commanderies in the north of the Yellow River bend and protected his new domains by erecting a fortification wall (see Great Wall). After the fall of Chu Zhao became the prominent state of Warring States China, only third after Qin and Qi. General Zhao She 趙奢 even defeated the army of Qin at Eyu 閼與 (modern Heshun 和順/Shanxi) in 270. Ten years later the two states competed for the territory of Shangdang 上黨 (modern Qinyang 沁陽/Henan). The army of Zhao was trapped at Changping 長平 (near modern Gaoping 高平/Shanxi), Zhao surrendered, but the Qin general Bai Qi buried alive more than 40.000 soldiers. But Zhao was not yet finally defeated - for two years the army of Qin beleaguered the capital of Zhao, Handan 邯鄲 (modern Handan/Hebei). Lord Xinling 信陵君 of Wei organized a relief army and rescued the state of Zhao, but Zhao should never recover from its terrible defeat at Changping. Over a long period, the dukes and kings of Qin had employed able advisors, beginning with the legist politician Shang Yang 商鞅, chancellor Wei Ran 魏冉 and Fan Ju 范雎 who proposed that Qin should create alliances with distant states against close enemies and who stressed that the ruler had to get rid of powerful nobles. Following these strategies, King Zhaoxiangwang 秦昭襄王 (r. 306-251) occupied large territories of Zhao, Wei and Han and conquered the Sichuan Basin with the Non-Chinese states of Shu 蜀 and Ba 巴. Under King Zhuangxiangwang 秦莊襄王 (r. 249-247) and his chancellor Lü Buwei 呂不韋 Qin had already advanced far into the territories of the states of the Central Plain and finished the house of Zhou. During the Spring and Autumn period, the kings of Zhou were still consulted in important matters and often sanctified decisice changes in the power structure within the feudal states. But from the 5th century on the kings of Zhou had totally lost their leading moral position and did not play any political role. From the late 5th century on the small state of Zhou was divided into two territories, Eastern Zhou (Dongzhou 東周; Gong 鞏, modern Gongxian 鞏縣/Henan) and Western Zhou (Xizhou 西周; Henan 河南, modern Luoyang 洛陽/Henan). The last ruler of Zhou was the Lord of East Zhou 東周君 (r. 255-249). In 246 the young Ying Zheng 嬴政 became king of Qin, in 237 he took over regency by himself, aided by chancellor Li Si 李斯 who helped Ying Zheng with his plans to conquer the remaining states. In 230 Qin destroyed Han, two years later Zhao was finally defeated after general Li Mu 李牧 had been assassinated. In 226 Qin advanced to the northeast and conquered Yan, one year later Qin beleaguered the capital of Wei, Daliang 大梁 (near modern Kaifeng 開封/Henan). By deviating the Yellow River the city was destroyed, and Wei submitted. General Wang Jian 王翦 lead 60.000 soldiers to conquer Chu in 223. In the following year Qin finished the conquest of the northeast, destroying Yan and Dai 代, the successor state of Zhao. The last state to tumble was Qi in 221. Only deep changes within the states had made possible prolonged military campaigns during the last century before the unification of China by Qin. Every ruler of the particular states had an entourage of political advisors that did not only propose actual tactics but also advocated profound reforms in the administration structure. Among the most famous persuaders are Su Qin 蘇秦, Zhang Yi 張儀. Some important aristocrats still participated in the politics like Lord Mengchang 孟嘗君 of Qi, Lord Pingyuan 平原君 of Zhao, Lord Xinling 信陵君 of Wei, and Lord Chunshen 春申君 of Chu, but in general the noble clans (qing dafu 卿大夫), relatives of the rulers or meritorious families, had lost their political influence and were replaces by state officials (li 吏). Enfeoffment was replaced by an organization in directly administered commanderies (jun 郡), especially in the newly conquered territories as can be seen in the northwest of the state of Yan (commanderies Yunzhong 雲中, Jiuyuan 九原) and in the south and east of Qin (commanderies Shu 蜀, Ba 巴, Qianzhong 黔中, Hanzhong 漢中, Nanjun 南郡, Shangjun 上郡, Shangdang 上黨, etc.). Of all reforming states Qin was the quickest to adapt reforms in administration (government, standardization of weights and measures, codification of law), taxation and military (peasant militia). Furthermore, its location in the region within (west of) the Hanguan Pass 函關 (guannei 關內) provided protection from the armies of the states east of the pass (guandong 關東). Last but not least, the state of Qin was governed by a line of strong rulers (Duke Xiaogong 秦孝公, King Zhaoxiangwang 秦昭襄王 and Ying Zheng 嬴政, the First Emperor of Qin 秦始皇帝) with able and ambitious political advisors as Shang Yang 商鞅, Lü Buwei 呂不韋 and Li Si 李斯 and excellent generals as Bai Qi 白起, Wang Jian 王翦 and Meng Tian 蒙恬.

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