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Students of Chinese history are often confused by the multitudiness of names a person is referred to. The article of this page tries to explain the most basic facts. At the same time, it provides an overview of the most common temple names, posthoumous honorific titles and reign mottos of China's emperors.
One short example (the founder of the Ming dynasty 明, 1368-1644) will highlight the complexity of this issue:
| Personal name (xingming 姓名) |
Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋 |
| Courtesy name (zi 字) |
(Zhu) Guorui (朱)國瑞 |
| Temple name (miaohao 廟號) |
Ming Taizu 明太祖 |
| Posthumous title (yihao 謚號) |
Ming Gaodi 明高帝 |
| Reign motto (nianhao 年號) |
Hongwu 洪武 |
The personal name (corresponding to Western "first names", ming 名 and zi 字)
The ming 名 was a childhood name used until the age of 20 sui, when boys were "capped" (guan 冠) and became an adult. At that time they adopted an adult name or courtesy name, the zi 字. Girls underwent the "pinning" (ji 笄) ritual at the age of 15 sui and were then called with their courtesy name. Both terms are today combined (mingzi 名字) and mean the whole name, "first name" as well as family name. The ming was from adulthood on a very intimate name and only used by friends, but also when a person speaks of himself. Adressing someone else, the zi name was to be used. In biographies of famous persons, both names are mentioned, and the ming is rather used than the zi. The latter is used especially in tomb inscriptions or in letters with formal character. The ming was often a one-syllable word, the zi could be a one-syllable or a two-syllable word. Sometimes the courtesy name was only an extension of the childhood name, like the Ming period scholar Huang Sheng 黃盛 whose courtesy name was Huang Dasheng 黃大盛. In Chinese biographies, the family name is normally not repeatead when listing the courtesy name, like in: Han Yu, zi Tuizhi, Dengzhou Nanyang ren 韓愈，字退之，鄧州南陽人。 "Han Yu, courtesy name Tuizhi, came from Nanyang in the prefecture Dengzhou." Both names, ming and zi, often had a similar meaning. Qu Yuan's 屈原 zi name, for instance, was Yuan 原 "levelled, flat", his ming was Ping 平 "even, flat". Zhuge Liang's 諸葛亮 ming was Liang 亮 "bright", his zi was Kongming 孔明 "enlightened hole" (Kong 孔 standing alone can also be a family name, like that of Confucius). Yue Fei's 岳飛 ming was Fei 飛 "flying", his zi was Peng 鵬 "phoenix". Ban Gu's 班固 ming was Gu 固 "stable, secure", his zi was Mengjian 孟堅 "rude and solid". The zi name of Sun Wen 孫文, Wen being his ming, was Yixian 逸仙. He is therefore known in the West as Sun Yat-Sen (Yixian in Cantonese pronunciation), but not so in China, because telling him with the courtesy name would be too formal. Some persons have two courtesy names, like Wen Tianxiang 文天祥 who was called Songrui 宋瑞 or Lüshan 履善. Today, personal names (ming) can either be one syllable long or two syllables. Some personal names, especially that of girls, consist of a repetitive syllable, like Yuanyuan 圓圓 or Bingbing 冰冰. During history, personal names were also subject to changed à la mode, like Ruzi 孺子, Xiangru 相如 or Shizhi 釋之 during the Han 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE) and Wuji 無忌 during the Tang period 唐 (618-907). There is no fixed repertoire of personal names like the "Christian" or biblical names in the West. Instead, families used to name their sons with words used in a certain poem, often written by an ancestor. Each generation obtained a new character as part of their name. Brothers so had often a common character in their name (like the brothers Lü Dazhong 呂大忠, Lü Dafang 呂大防, Lü Dajun 呂大鈞 and Lü Dalin 呂大臨) or at least a character with a similiar graphical element (like the brothers Su Shi 蘇軾 and Su Zhe 蘇轍, both with the element 車).
Young people today often adopt English names, partially because it seems more fashionable, and partly because Chinese names are not easy to pronounce for foreigners. The Hong Kong singer Lau Tak-Wah (Liu Dehua 劉德華), for example, calls himself Andy Lau. On the other hand, foreigners often adopt a Chinese name. Such names can vary in quality and can often at first sight be identified as that of a foreigner. The Jesuits in China accommodated to Chinese culture and had Chinese names. Matteo Ricci, for instance, was called Li Madou 利瑪竇 (Li for Ricci and Madou for Matteo).
Traditionally, the personal names of women are seldomly explicitly told in literature, yet there are also exceptions like Li Dewu qi Pei, zi Shuying 李德武妻裴，字淑英 "Li Dewu's wife Ms Pei, courtesy name Shuying". Even empresses are regularly called only with their family names, like Yehenala shi 葉赫那拉氏 "Ms Yehenala", the Empress Dowager Cixi 慈禧太后 (Cixi is not her personal name but only her title, "Benevolent-Auspicous", as Empress and Empress Dowager), or Xuanzong guifei Yang shi 玄宗貴妃楊氏 "Emperor Xuanzong's honoured consort, Ms Yang", who is known as Yang Guifei 楊貴妃 "Honoured consort Yang". Yet some sources say that her personal name was Yuhuan 玉環. A concubine of Emperor Cheng of the Han dynasty was called Zhao Feiyan 趙飛燕 "Flying swallow" because of her dancing talents. Feiyan was surely not her real name.
The family name (corresponding to the Western "surname", xing 姓 and shi 氏)
"Surnames" or family names (xing 姓) in Chinese are standing in front position, the personal name or "first name" (ming 名) follows at the end. The Chinese actress Gong Li 鞏俐, for example, has the family name Gong and the personal name Li. This is also use in other East Asian names in Japan (Koizumi Junichirō 小泉純一郎, the former Prime Minister), Korea (madman Kim Yong Il 金英逸) and Vietnam (Hồ Chí Minh 胡志明). There are only a few hundred family names in Chinese, of which about two dozen are much more frequently used than others. To the most common family names belong Wang 王, Zhang 張, Ma 馬, Zhao 趙, Chen 陳 and Li 李, while names like Diao 刁 or She 佘 are very rare. Chinese family names are also not equally distributed over China. Chen (Chan) 陳, Liang (Leung) 梁 and Lin (Lam) 林are typical names from the south, Zhu 朱 and Gu 顧 are often seen in the lower Yangtse area, while Cheng 程, Kong 孔 and Guo 郭 are northern names. Most family names are only one syllable long, yet there are a few and rarely seen two-syllable family names (fuxing 複姓), the most common of which are Ouyang 歐陽, Sima 司馬 and Zhuge 諸葛. Some of these names are of foreign origin (e.g. Turkic or Mongolian), like Geshu 哥舒, Linghu 令狐 or Yelü 耶律. In ancient China, such names were more common than today (especially among the nobility, like Zizhuo Ruzi 子濯孺子 or Yingong zhi Tuo 尹公之佗).
The term xingming means family and personal name ("first and last name"). The two kinds of surnames are traditionally often used as one term, xingshi 姓氏. They originate in the earliest times of Chinese history, at latest the Zhou period 周 (11th cent.-221 BCE), and are used for the paternal and the maternal line, respectively. The Song period 宋 (960-1279) history Tongzhi 通志 says that shi 氏 is the name of the paternal family, xing 姓 that for the mother (therefore the radical "woman" 女). There was the rule that a marriage was only possible if the maternal family of two partners was not identical, yet if the paternal line was the same or not, did not play a role (shi tong xing bu tong zhe, hunyin ke tong 氏同姓不同者婚姻可通。). In imperial times, the difference between xing and shi as maternal and paternal lines ceased to play a role. The use of both terms was different from then on was that shi was seen as a distinctive criterion subordinated to the xing, meaning that shi indicated a more concrete branch or location of the family (like Pingyang Zhang 平陽張 "the Zhangs from Pingyang"), as well as the common ancestor, an inheritable title or an official rank a member could be appointed to. Such a distinction was all the more important as the population increased and people often changed place where they lived. During the Wei 曹魏 (220-265) and Jin 晉 (265-420) periods the distinction of the shi was connected to a general classification of the family into one of nine ranks that allowed them to enter a certain stage of the bureaucracy (the jiupin system 九品). Among the noblity, the name of the fiefs in the earliest times was transformed into a surname, like the son of the Duke of Zhou 周公 who was enfeoffed with the territory of Xing 邢. His descendants adopted Xing as their surname. A lot of surnames can be derived from the names of states and statelets of the Zhou period (Zhou 周, Qi 齊, Qin 秦, Wu 吳, Cai 蔡, Tang 唐, Song 宋, Wei 魏, Cao 曹 or less often seen names like Xue 薛 or Tan 譚). After the Tang period 唐 (618-907) the term shi became less important and only rarely used in this sense.
Already in earlier times, but still in late traditional China, shi was used in the same sense as xing, often replacing the personal name in abbreviations like 呂氏 "Master Lü", instead of the full name Lü Buwei 呂不韋.
The term shi is also used to indicate the family name of a woman, like in Fang Xuanling qi Lu shi 房玄齡妻盧氏 "Fang Xuanling's wife Ms Lu".
It is not custom in China that women adopt the family name of their husband after marriage.
The tabooed personal name (hui 諱)
It was, even after their death, forbidden to tell the personal name (ming) of an emperor. Instead, the personal name is referred to as hui in imperial biographies. The characters of their names were often also slightly altered so that it seemed as if the word was not written. The surname of the founder of the Ming dynasty, for instance, was written 硃 instead of 朱. In the history Jinshu, written during the Tang period, Liu Yuan 劉淵 is called with his courtesy name, Yuanhai 元海, in order to avoid the name of the founder of the Tang, Li Yuan 李淵. The avoidance of an emperor's name could even have influence on book titles like the Taixuanjing 太玄經 that was called Taiyuanjing 太元經 during the reign of the Kangxi emperor and even decades later, because his personal name was Xuanye 玄燁.
During lifetime and emperor was usually adressed as Shang 上 "Your Highness", Huangshang 皇上 "Your August Highness" or Bixia 陛下 "Below the Steps to the Throne" (in order to avoid a direct adressing).
The style (hao 號)
The hao "style" is a freely chosen alternative name. It was either a cognomen or a nickname, but especially among literati it was common to adopt a style for the own studio (shi 室, ju 居, zhai 齋, ting 亭, lou 樓 etc.). This studio name (shiming 室名 or zhaiming 齋名) often replaced the real name, like Songxuezhai 松雪齋 that of the calligrapher Zhao Mengfu 趙孟頫. A lot of scholars used several styles, like the Tang period calligrapher Huang Tingjian 黃庭堅 (Tingjian was his zi courtesy name, while his ming was Luzhi 魯直) who called himself Fuweng 涪翁 "Old man from Fu (a place name in Sichuan)" or Shangu daoren 山谷道人 "Daoist from the mountain valley". He is therefore also known as Huang Shangu 黃山谷. The Republican scholar Wang Guowei 王國維 has the studio name Wang Guantang 王觀堂 because his studio was called Guantang 觀堂 "Contemplation Hall". The Song period writer Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 called himself Zuiweng 醉翁 "Old drunkard" or Liu-yi jushi 六一居士 "Scholar of the six ones" (meaning one ten-thousand 一萬 books, one thousand rubbings, one zither, one chess board, one jug of wine, and one old man [himself]). Place names were also popular hao names, like Yichuan 伊川 (a river near Luoyang) for the brothers Cheng Hao 程顥 and Cheng Yi 程頤. Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮 called himself Wolong 臥龍 "Sleeping Dragon". Wei Yingwu 韋應物 was called Wei Suzhou 韋蘇州 because he came from that city. Important offices a scholar-official had occupied were also often used as styles, like Du Gongbu 杜工部 "Du, Minister of Works" for the poet Du Fu 杜甫, or Liu Zhonglei 劉中壘 "Liu from the Capital Guard" for the bibliographer Liu Xiang 劉向. Sun Yat-Sen 孫文 called himself Zhongshan 中山 "Central Mountain" (probably from the Japanese family name Nakayama) and is therefore in China best known as Sun Zhongshan 孫中山 and also called Guofu 國父 "Father of the Nation". His political heir Jiang Kai-Shek 蔣介石 is called Zhongzheng xiansheng 中正先生 "Master Central Orthodoxy". Very common among modern poets is the adoption of an alias name, like Lu Xun 魯迅 for Zhou Shuren 周樹人 or Lao She 老舍 for Shu Qingchun 舒慶春.
The posthumous honorific title (yihao 謚號)
The posthumous honorific title is granted to an emperor or a grand minister after his death and chosen according to how the respective person performed during his lifetime. The posthumous title of an emperor is chosen by the officials of the MInistry of Rites, that of a minister by the emperor. Except those official posthumous titles, there are also private honorific titles (siyi 私謚) given to a high-standing person and chosen by his disciples or friends. The use of posthumous honorific titles came up during the Zhou dynasty (e. g. the titles King Wen and King Wu for the dynastic founders). The Qin dynasty did not make use of them but the emperors were posthumously to be called with a kind of number going through all (expected) generations, like Shihuang 始皇 "First Emperor", Ershihuang 二世皇 "Second Emperor", etc. Yet after the early demis of the Qin, the honorific titles were reintroduced by the rulers of the Han dynasty and continued being used until the end of the Qing dynasty. Yet not all emperors were given a posthumous honorific title: Liu Bang 劉邦, founder oft he Han dynasty, for instance, has only been given the temple name Gaozu 高祖 (miaohao 廟號). His son, Liu Ying 劉盈, on the other side, was only given a posthumous honorific title (Hui 惠 "the benevolent") but no temple name because he had no surviving descendants. There is a fixed set of names used for posthumous honorific titles with a predefined meaning, some of them expressing the virtue (like wen 文 "the cultured", hui 惠 "the benevolent", huan 桓 "the graceful" or yuan 元 "the primary virtuous") or martial performance (like wu 武 "the martial") of the bearer,some of them expressing a rough conduct (like li 厲 "the unpityful"), licentious behaviour (like yang 煬 "like roaring fire") or superstition (like ling 靈 „believer in ghosts“), some bring forward a feeling of pity for an unlucky life (like ai 哀““, min 愍 „“ or huai 懷 „“). In older times, posthumous honorific titles consisted of one syllable. From the XXX period on, there were also combinations, like XXX , or - in the private sphere – Zhongwen 文忠 for Su Shi 蘇軾, Wumu 武穆 for Yue Fei 岳飛 or Zhongjie 忠介 for Hai Rui 海瑞. From the Tang period on the honorific designations for late emperors became very abundant-not to say bombastic-like Wenwu dasheng daguang xiao huangdi 文武大聖大廣孝皇帝 "Cultured and martial, filial emperor, great saint and great broadminded" for Emperor Tang Taizong 唐太宗. This circumstance made honorific titles very impractical for daily use, and they were superseded by the temple names (q.v.) of the rulers. Posthoumous honorific titles were awarded to emperors (like Zhou Xuanwang 周宣王 "King Xuan [of Wide-Reaching (virtue)] of the Zhou" or Han Wudi 漢武帝 "Emperor Wu [the Martial] of the Han"), rulers of feudal states (Lu Aigong 魯哀公 "Duke Ai [the Lamentable] of Lu"), princes bearing the title of a fiefdom (Liang Xiaowang 梁孝王 "Prince Xiao [the Filial] of Liang"), as well as private persons of high standing and the class of literati (Ouyang Wenzhonggong 歐陽文忠公 "Ouyang, Duke Wenzhong [the Cultivated-Loyal]", i.e. Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修).
Not all emperors enjoyed the honour to be granted such a title. This was expecially true for those deposed or dethroned, mostly at the end of a dynasty, or very young emperors whose descendants did not continue the dynastic line. These emperors are commonly referred to as Feidi 廢帝 "Deposed Emperor" or Feizhu 廢主 "Deposed Ruler" (Wu Feidi 吳廢帝, Jin Feidi 晉廢帝, Cheng-Han Feizhu 成漢廢主, Xia Feizhu 夏廢主, Song Qianfeidi 宋前廢帝, Song Houfeidi 宋後廢帝, Qi Feidi 齊廢帝 I and II, Chen Feidi 陳廢帝, Beiwei Qianfeidi 北魏前廢帝, Beiwei Houfeidi 北魏後廢帝, Xiwei Feidi 西魏廢帝, Beiqi Feidi 北齊廢帝, Beihan Feidi 北漢廢帝, Chu Feiwang 楚廢王, Houtang Qianfeidi 後唐前廢帝, Houtang Feidi 後唐廢帝), Modi 末帝 "Last Emperor" (Wu Modi 吳末帝, Qianqin Mozhu 前秦末主, Houliang Modi 後梁末帝, Houtang Modi 後唐末帝, Xiliao Mozhu 西遼末主, Jin Modi 金末帝, Xixia Mozhu 西夏末主, Qing Modi 清末帝), or Shaodi 少帝 "Child Emperor" (Han Shaodi, Wei Shaodi 魏少帝, Qianzhao Shaozhu 前趙少主, Song Shaodi 宋少帝, Tang Shaodi 唐少帝, Beihan Shaozhu 北漢少主,Houtang Shaodi 後唐少帝, Houjin Shaodi 後晉少帝, Houhan Shaodi 後漢少帝), or Youzhu 幼主 "Infant Ruler" (Wu Youdi 吳幼帝, Beiqi Youzhu 北齊幼主). One minor emperor of the Han was called Ruzi Ying 孺子嬰 "Ying the Kid" (Ying was a common ming name of that time, yet it also means "baby").
XXX common to name rulers not bestowed a honorific titles by other means, like Prince of..., according to reign motto etc. Besides the emperors, the various princes and marquesses were likewise bestowed honorific titles after their death.
The temple name was bestowed upon a deceased emperor and was written on a tablet used during offerings in the dynastic altar (taimiao 太廟). Temple names were first used during the Shang period and continued to be bestowed on dynastic ancestors until the end of the Qing dynasty. It was common that the founder of a dynasty was called Taizu 太祖, Gaozu 高祖 or Shizu 世祖, their successors were often called Taizong 太宗 or Shizong 世宗. Before the Sui period the use of temple names was restricted to important rulers whose life had a great impact on the empire or the dynasty. From the Tang period onwards, all emperors were given temple names. At the same time the designations for the temple names was combined with that of the posthumous honorific titles (yihao 謚號), like Wenzong 文宗 or Wuzong 武宗. The term zu was practically given up, and all emperors had a temple name including the term zong. In the West, and also in the People's Republic, emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties are more often referred to with their reign motto (q.v.). Temple names were also granted to an emperor's father and paternal grandfather that had not been rulers. These persons of common origin were so made emperor after their death. The temple name of the founder of the Song dynasty for instance, Zhao Kuangyin 趙匡胤, was Song Taizu 宋太祖, his father Zhao Hongyi 趙弘殷 was posthumously called Emperor Xuanzu 宋宣祖, his grandfather Zhao Jing 趙敬 Emperor Jizu 宋翼祖, his great-grandfather Zhao Ting 趙珽 Emperor Shunzu 宋順祖, his great-great-grandfather Zhao Tiao 趙朓 Emperor Gaozu 宋高祖.
The most important temple names (irrespective of ex-post awarded titles) are:
| 高祖 Gaozu |
Han Gaozu 漢高祖, Wei Gaozu 魏高祖, Houzhao Gaozu 後趙高祖, Qianyan Gaozu 前燕高祖, Qianqin Gaozu 前秦高祖, Houqin Gaozu 後秦高祖, Xiqin Gaozu 西秦高祖, Song Gaozu 宋宋祖, Liang Gaozu 梁高祖, Chen Gaozu 陳高祖, Beizhou Gaozu 北周高祖, Sui Gaozu 隋高祖, Tang Gaozu 唐高祖, Qianshu Gaozu 前蜀高祖, Houshu Gaozu 後蜀高祖, Nanhan Gaozu 南漢高祖, Wu Gaozu 吳高祖, Houjin Gaozu 後晉高祖, Houhan Gaozu 後漢高祖 |
| 高宗 Gaozong |
Han Gaozong 漢高宗, Qianzhao Gaozong 前趙高宗, Qi Gaozong 齊高宗, Chen Gaozong 陳高宗, Beiwei Gaozong 北魏高宗, Tang Gaozong 唐高宗, Song Gaozong 宋高宗, Qing Gaozong 清高宗
高帝 Gaodi: Han Gaodi 漢高帝, Qianqin Gaodi 前秦高帝, Qi Gaodi 齊高帝
高后 Gaohou: Han Gaohou 漢高后 |
| 太祖 Taizu |
Han Taizu 漢太祖, Wu Taizu 吳太祖, Houzhao Taizu 後趙太祖, Qianyan Taizu 前燕太祖, Beiyan Taizu 北燕太祖, Qianqin Taizu 前秦太祖, Houqin Taizu 後秦太祖, Xiqin Taizu 西秦太祖, Houliang Taizu 後涼太祖, Xiliang Taizu 西涼太祖, Beiliang Taizu 北涼太祖, Liu-Song Taizu 劉宋太祖, Qi Taizu 齊太祖, Beiwei Taizu 北魏太祖, Wu Taizu 吳太祖, Min Taizu 閩太祖, Houliang Taizu 後梁太祖, Houzhou Taizu 後周太祖, Song Taizu 宋太祖, Liao Taizu 遼太祖, Jin Taizu 金太祖, Yuan Taizu 元太祖, Ming Taizu 明太祖, Qing Taizu 清太祖 |
| 太宗 Taizong |
Han Taizong 漢太宗, Cheng-Han Taizong 成漢太宗, Qianqin Taizong 前秦太宗, Qianliang Taizong 前涼太宗, Liu-Song Taizong 劉宋太宗, Liang Taizong 梁太宗, Beiwei Taizong 北魏太宗, Tang Taizong 唐太宗, Min Taizong 閩太宗, Song Taizong 宋太宗, Liao Taizong 遼太宗, Jin Taizong 金太宗, Yuan Tiazong 元太宗, Qing Taizong 清太宗 |
| 嗣宗 Sizong |
Min Sizong 閩嗣宗
Wei Sibo 衛嗣伯， XXX Sijun 嗣君 |
| 中宗 Zhongzong |
Han Zhongzong 漢中宗, Cheng-Han Zhongzong 成漢中宗, Jin Zhongzong 晉中宗, Houyan Zhongzong 後燕中宗, Tang Zhongzong 唐中宗, Nanhan Zhongzong 南漢中宗 |
| 世祖 Shizu |
Han Shizu 漢世祖, Jin Shizu 晉世祖, Houyan Shizu 後燕世祖, Nanyan Shizu 南燕世祖, Qianqin Shizu 前秦世祖, Xia Shizu 夏世祖, Qianliang Shizu 前涼世祖, Song Shizu 宋世祖, Qi Shizu 齊世祖, Liang Shizu 梁世祖, Chen Shizu 陳世祖, Beiwei Shizu 北魏世祖, Beiqi Shizu 北齊世祖, Shi Shizu 隋世祖, Beihan Shizu 北漢世祖, Yuan Shizu 元世祖, Qing Shizu 清世祖 |
| 世宗 Shizong |
Han Shizong 漢世宗, Nanyan Shizong 南燕世宗, Qianqin Shizong 前秦世宗, Beiwei Shizong 北魏世宗, Beizhou Shizong 北周世宗, Houzhou Shizong 後周世宗, Liao Shizong 遼世宗, Jin Shizong 金世宗, Ming Shizong 明世宗, Qing Shizong 清世宗 |
| 元宗 Yuanzong |
Nantang Yuanzong 南唐元宗 |
| 烈祖 Liezu |
Qianyan Liezu 前燕烈祖, Houyan Liezu 後燕烈祖, Xiqin Liezu 西秦烈祖, Nanliang Liezu 南涼烈祖, Wu Liezu 吳烈祖, Nantang Liezu 南唐烈祖 |
| 烈宗 Liezong |
Jin Liezong 晉烈宗, Qianzhao Liezong 前趙烈宗, Nanhan Liezong 南漢烈宗, Houyan Liezong 後燕烈宗 |
| 始祖 Shizu |
Cheng-Han Shizu 成漢始祖, Houqin Shizu 後秦始祖 |
Because virtually all dynasties have their Gaozu, Gaozong, Taizu or Taizong, it is very important to always add the name of the dynasty to avoid confusion about which Gaozu or Taizong is meant. In this form, the designation Tang Taizong or Song Gaozong is a kind of parallel to the "civilian" name (family plus personal name), and using the lonely name "Gaozong" would be the same as speaking of "King Henry" (which number? English or French?).
The pre-Zhou rulers (Xia and Shang) had other systems to address their ancestors. They called their forefathers with a number according to the Ten Celestial Stems, like Waibing 外丙 "Outer III", Zhongren 中壬 "Middle IX", Taijia 太甲 "Great I", Woding 沃丁 "Fertile IV", Taigeng 太庚 "Great VII" etc. Early Zhou period rulers also partially use this system, like Qi Dinggong 齊丁公 or Qi Guigong 齊癸公. These numbers are not a counting of rulers with the same name, like Henry I, Henry II, but were given according to a genealogical system.
Temple names were also posthumously bestowed upon the fathers or grandfathers of dynastic founders, like XXX.
Reign mottos were adopted by almost all emperors from the early Former Han period on. These mottos had often an auspicious or positive character or espressed the majesty a the ruler's ambitions. Emperor Wu of the Han was the first ruler who regulary proclaimed reign mottos. Reign mottos could change every few years (Empress Wu Zetian used 17 mottos during her 20 years long reign), but there are some examples when emperors changed their motto after a few months, often in connection with a political plan or enterprise. This can be very confusing because one year can be referred to by several different reign mottos, like the year 692 that was the third year with the reign motto Tianshou 天授 "Celestial instruction", yet in the fourth month (approx. May-Jun) the reign motto Ruyi 如意 "As we wish" was chosen, and in the ninth month (approx. Oct-Nov) the motto Changshou 長壽 "Longevity". Similarly confusing is a period of time when several dynasties reigned China. The year 1066, for example, was the third year with the reign motto Zhiping 治平 "Ruling to peace" in the Northern Song empire, the second year with the reign motto Xianyong 咸雍 "Everything in harmony" in the Liao empire and the fourth year with the reign motto Gonghua 拱化 "Towards an all-embracing [policy]" in the Western Xia empire.
From the Ming period on, all rulers only chose one reign motto that was valid for the whole period of their rule. The reign mottos of the Ming and Qing emperors are therefore in the West (and sometimes also in China) erroneously used like a personal name of the ruler, like "Emperor Kangxi" instead of a correct "the Kangxi Emperor" (Kangxi di 康熙帝 "the emperor of [the reign motto] 'Strong brilliance'"). The change of the reign motto was called gaiyuan 改元 "change over to a (new) beginning". When a new emperor mounted the throne it was common that the reign motto of his predecessor (in most cases, the new emperor's father) was retained until the first day of the next year. Such a proclamation was often combined with a great amnesty (dashe 大赦).
Titles of nobility
In historiography, persons are more likely to be called with their title of nobility (juelu 爵祿) than with their personal name. The most important titles are, of course wang "king" and huangdi "emperor" (in combination with names also shortly called di or huang ). The five titles of nobility (wujue 五爵) through all ages were gong 公 "Duke" (like Lu Aigong 魯哀公 Duke Ai of Lu), hou 侯 "Marquis" (like Jin Wenhou 晉文侯 "Duke Wen of Jin), bo 伯 "earl", zi 子 "Viscount" and nan 男 "Baron". From imperial times on the title wang is to be translated as "Prince" if the bearer of the title is related to the imperial house (which is in most cases the fact). During the Qing period this title was called qinwang 親王 "Relative Prince" (like Gong qinwang 恭親王 "Prince Gong"). If a ruler was not accepted as a righteous emperor by historiographers he was called zhu 主 "Ruler" (like Shu Qianzhu 蜀前主 or Shu Qianzhu 蜀先主 and Shu Houzhu 蜀後主, Cheng-Han Houzhu 成漢後主, Houqin Houzhu 後秦後主, Xiqin Houzhu 西秦後主, Xia Houzhu 夏後主, Qianliang Houzhu 前涼後主, Houliang Houzhu 後涼後主, Xiliang Houzhu 西涼後主, Liang Houzhu 梁後主, Chen Houzhu 陳後主, Beiqi Houzhu 北齊後主, Qianshu Houzhu 前蜀後主, Houshu Houzhu 後蜀後主, Nanhan Houzhu 南漢後主, Nantang Zhongzhu 南唐中主, Nantang Houzhu 南唐後主). A very generic term for ruler is jun 君 "Lord". This title was in pre-imperial times bestowed like a title of nobility and was endowed with a fief. With the foundation of the empire the term came out of use and was degraded to a very polite adress, something like "Sir".
XXX examples from Warring States period.
The term for Queen or Empress is hou 后. The etymology of this word and character is still under discussion. It could either have been a female equivalent to the male si 司 "governor" (which is quite improbable) or a picture of a wife giving birth to a son (a heir), or an alternative writing for 侯 "ruler" (like in the name of the Zhou dynasty's mythical ancestor Hou Ji 后稷, the "Lord of Millet"). After the death of her husband, a queen or empress became a taihou 太后 "Empress Dowager" (or Queen Dowager, in pre-imperial times), after the death of her son a taihuang taihou 太皇太后 "Grand Empress Dowager". Empresses can be called with their family name, like Lü Hou "Empress Lü", but are much more often tied to their husband in the shape of Gaozu Taimu Huanghou Dou shi 高祖太穆皇后竇氏 "Empress Taimu (the Great Respectful) of Emperor Gaozu, Ms Dou". Favourites of an emperor that were not officially given the title of Empress (that was reserved to one person only) were called fei 妃 "consort".
Princesses are called gongzhu 公主, like Yongtai gongzhu 永泰公主 "Princess Everlasting Greatness". Like Empresses, their name was tied to that of her husband, like Lu Yuan gongzhu 魯元公主 "The Princess of [King] Yuan of Lu". Also here, personal names are totally neglected by historiographers.
For court ladies, there were many different titles corresponding to a certain rank and income. The most often seen of these titles are furen 夫人 "Lady", meiren 美人 "Beauty", jieyu 婕妤 "Lady of Handsome Fairness" and guifei 貴妃 "Honoured consort".
The religious name (fahao 法號)
Buddhist monks and nun adopted, like in the West ("Sister Eusebia"), a religious name with their ordination. These names have traditionally two syllables. The most famous among them are Xuanzang 玄奘 (a special reading, meaning of 奘 not clear), Faxian 法顯 "Evidence of the dharma (the Buddha's teachings)", Jianzhen 鑑真 "Mirroring the truth", or Konghai 空海 "Sea of emptiness". He real names of these persons are only to be found in their biographies but are not used outside of such. It is common that Buddhist names are headed by the term Shi 釋 (from Shijiamouni 釋迦牟尼 "Shākyamuni") to indicate that they were monks, and as a kind of replacement for the missing family name, like Shi Sengyou 釋僧祐 "Monk Sengyou". Monks of the Chan school (Zen) adopted longer names than those of the traditional schools XXX.
Daoists did not follow such strict rules. Their "patriarchs" continued using their original name. Yet there was an abundant treasure of honorific titles for deities in the Daoist Heaven like Taishang Laojun 太上老君 "Old Lord of the Utmost Heights" for Laozi 老子 or Nanhua zhenren 南華真人 "Perfect Man of the Southern Florescence" for Zhuangzi 莊子. More "human" persons also adopted picturesce epitheta like Qingyuan zhenren 青元真人 "Perfect Man of the Azure Origin", Hunranzi 混然子 "Master of the Primordial Chaos", Chisongzi 赤松子 "Master Red Pine", Haichan dijun 海蟾帝君 "Imperial Lord Sea Cicada" or Zhenyi xiansheng 貞一先生 "Master Pure Unity".
Terms of address
In ancient China the term sheng 生 "Master" was a common form of polite adress attached to the family name. In modern China it developed into the term xiansheng 先生 "Sir, Mister". Another very polit term of address is gong 公 "Master", also attached to the family name. Old men can be called daye 大爺 or laoye 老爺. A female person is called Taitai 太太 "Ms" and more recently Nüshi 女士 "Lady, Madam". An unmarried girl is called xiaojie 小姐 "Mistress", but recently this term can have a somewhat derogatory meaning.
List of posthumous honorific titles
This list only includes ruling persons from the Zhou dynasty, feudal lords from the Zhou period, as well as rulers of all imperial dynasties. Princes (like Liu Wu 劉武, Prince Xiao of Liang 梁孝王) and commoners (like Peng Xuan 彭宣, Marquis Qing of Changping 長平頃侯) are not included. The titles and terms are listed in alphabetical order according to the Hanyu pinyin system Below the level of titles, names are listed chronologically (Zhou > feudal lords [alphabetically], Jin > 16 States [alphabetically, Chinese name (Beiliang, not Northern Liang)], Southern Dynasties > Northern Dynasties [Chinese name (Xiwei, not Western Wei)], 5 Dynasties > 10 States, Song > Liao and Jin).
| 哀 ai "the Lamentable" | Zhou Aiwang 周哀王, Qin Aigong 秦哀公, Chen Aigong 陳哀公, Yan Aihou 燕哀侯, Qi Aigong 杞哀公, Lu Aigong 魯哀公, Cai Aigong 蔡哀公, Song Aigong 宋哀公, Zheng Aigong 鄭哀公, Qi Aigong 齊哀公, Jin Aihou 晉哀侯, Jin Aigong 晉哀公, Chu Aiwang 楚哀王, Wei Aiwang 魏哀王, Han Aihou 韓哀侯, Han Aidi 漢哀帝, Jin Aidi 晉哀帝, Cheng-Han Aidi 成漢哀帝, Qianqin Aipingdi 前秦哀平帝, Qianliang Aigong 前涼哀公, Beiliang Aiwang 北涼哀王, Tang Aidi 唐哀帝, Jin Aizong 金哀宗 |
| 安 an "the Peaceful" | Zhou Anwang 周安王, Wei Anxiwang 魏安釐王, Han Andi 漢安帝, Jin Andi 晉安帝 |
| 成 cheng "the Completer" | Zhou Chengwang 周成王, Qin Chenggong 秦成公, Chen Chenggong 陳成公, Yan Chenggong 燕成公, Yan Wuchengwang 燕武成王, Qi Chenggong 杞成公， Lu Chenggong 魯成公, Cai Chenggong 蔡成公, Song Chenggong 宋成公, Cao Chenggong 曹成公, Wei Chenggong 衛成公, Wei Chenghou 衛成侯, Zheng Chenggong 鄭成公, Qi Chenggong 齊成公, Jin Chenghou 晉成侯, Jin Chenggong 晉成公, Chu Chengwang 楚成王, Zhao Chenghou 趙成侯, Zhao Xiaochengwang 趙孝成王, Han Chengdi 漢成帝, Jin Chengdi 晉成帝, Houyan Wuchengdi 後燕武成帝, Houyan Chengwudi 後燕成武帝, Beiyan Wenchengdi 北燕文成帝, Beiyan Zhaochengdi 北燕昭成帝, Qianliang Chengliewang 前涼成烈王, Qianliang Chengwang 前涼成王, Beiwei Chengdi 北魏成帝, Beiwei Wenchengdi 北魏文成帝, Beiqi Wuchengdi 北齊武成帝, Yuan Chengzong 元成宗, Ming Chengzu 明成祖 |
| 崇 chong "the Venerated" | Xixia Chongzong 西夏崇宗 |
| 沖 chong "the Offender" | Han Chongdi 漢沖帝, Qianliang Chongwang 前涼沖王 |
| 出 chu "the Last" | Qin Chuzi 秦出子, Qin Chugong 秦出公, Qi Chugong 杞出公, Wei Chugong 衛出公, Jin Chugong 晉出公, Beiwei Chudi 北魏出帝, Houjin Chudi 後晉出帝 |
| 純 chun "the Faithful" |
| 大 da "the Great" | Wu Dadi 吳大帝 |
| 戴 dai "the Respectful" | Cai Daihou 蔡戴侯, Song Daigong 宋戴公, Cao Daibo 曹戴伯, Wei Daigong 衛戴公 |
| 代 dai "the Dynastical" | Tang Daizong 唐代宗, Ming Daizong 明代宗 |
| 道 dao "the Well-Led" | Beiwei Daowudi 北魏道武帝, Liao Daozong 遼道宗 |
| 悼 dao "the Mournful" | Zhou Daowang 周悼王, Qin Daogong 秦悼公, Yan Daogong 燕悼公， Qi Daogong 杞悼公, Lu Daogong 魯悼公, Cai Daogong 蔡悼公, Song Daogong 宋悼公, Cao Daogong 曹悼公, Wei Daogong 衛悼公, Zheng Daogong 鄭悼公, Qi Daogong 齊悼公, Jin Daogong 晉悼公, Chu Daowang 楚悼王, Zhao Daoxiangwang 趙悼襄王, Wei Daozi 魏悼子 |
| 德 de "the Virtuous" | Qin Degong 秦德公, Tang Dezong 唐德宗, Xiliao Dezong 西遼德宗, Qing Dezong 清德宗 |
| 定 ding "the Settler" | Zhou Dingwang 周定王, Zhou Zhendingwang 周貞定王, Lu Dinggong 魯定公, Wei Dinggong 衛定公, Zheng Dinggong 鄭定公, Jin Dinggong 晉定公, Yuan Dingzong 元定宗 |
| 度 du "the Careful" | Song Duzong 宋度宗 |
| 端 duan "the Upright" | Song Duanzong 宋端宗 |
| 愕 e "the Honest" |
| 恭 gong "the Reverent" | Han Gongzong 漢恭宗, Jin Gongdi 晉恭帝, Xiwei Gongdi 西魏恭帝, Sui Gongdi 隋恭帝, Chu Gongxiaowang 楚恭孝王, Houzhou Gongdi 後周恭帝, Song Gongdi 宋恭帝 |
| 共 gong "the Common" | Zhou Gongwang 周共王, Qin Gonggong 秦共公, Chen Gonggong 陳共公, Yan Gonggong 燕共公， Qi Gonggong 杞共公, Lu Gonggong 魯共公, Cai Gonghou 蔡共侯, Song Gonggong 宋共公, Cao Gonggong 曹共公, Wei Gongbo 衛共伯, Chu Gongwang 楚共王 |
| 光 guang "the Bright" | Han Guangwudi 漢光武帝, Qianzhao Guangwendi 前趙光文帝, Song Guangzong 宋光宗, Ming Guangzong 明光宗 |
| 和 he "the Harmonious" | HAN, Qi Hedi 齊和帝 |
| 胡 hu "the XXX" | Chen Hugong 陳胡公, Qi Hugong 齊胡公 |
| 懷 huai "the Mindful" | Qin Huaigong 秦懷公, Chen Huaigong 陳懷公, Wei Huaigong 衛懷公, Wei Huaijun 衛懷君, Jin Huaigong 晉懷公, Chu Huaiwang 楚懷王, Jin Huaidi 晉懷帝 |
| 桓 huan "the Effector" | Zhou Huanwang 周桓王, Xizhou Huangong 西周桓公, Qin Huangong 秦桓公, Chen Huangong 陳桓公, Yan Huanhou 燕桓侯, Yan Huangong 燕桓公, Qi Huangong 杞桓公， Lu Huangong 魯桓公, Cai Huangong 蔡桓公, Song Huangong 宋桓公, Cao Huangong 曹桓公, Wei Huangong 衛桓公, Zheng Huangong 鄭桓公, Qi Huangong 齊桓公, Jin Huangong 晉桓公, Zhao Huanzi 趙桓子, Wei Huanzi 魏桓子, Han Huanhuiwang 韓桓惠王, Han Huandi 漢桓帝, Houqin Wenhuandi 後秦文桓帝, Qianliang Huanwang 前涼桓王, Beiwei Huandi 北魏桓帝, Xixia Huanzong 西夏桓宗 |
| 惠 hui "the Benevolent" | Zhou Huiwang 周惠王, Xizhou Huigong 西周惠公, Dongzhou Huigong 東周惠公, Qin Huigong 秦惠公, Qin Huiwenwang 秦惠文王, Chen Huigong 陳惠公, Yan Huihou 燕惠侯, Yan Huigong 燕惠公, Yan Huiwang 燕惠王, Qi Huigong 杞惠公， Lu Huigong 魯惠公, Song Huigong 宋惠公, Cao Huibo 曹惠伯, Qi Huigong 齊惠公, Jin Huigong 晉惠公, Chu Huiwang 楚惠王, Zhao Huiwenwang 趙惠文王, Liang Huiwang 梁惠王, Han Xuanhuiwang 韓宣惠王, Han Huanhuiwang 韓桓惠王, Han Huidi 漢惠帝, Jin Huidi 晉惠帝, Houyan Huimindi 後燕惠閔皇帝, Houyan Huiyidi 後燕惠懿帝, Qianqin Huiwudi 前秦惠武帝, Qiuchi Huiwenwang 仇池惠文王, Beiwei Huidi 北魏惠帝, Min Huizong 閩惠宗, Xixia Huizong 西夏惠宗, Yuan Huizong 元惠宗, Ming Huidi 明惠帝 |
| 徽 hui "the Honourable" | Song Huizong 宋徽宗 |
| 簡 jian "the Simple" | Zhou Jianwang 周簡王, Qin Jiangong 秦簡公, Yan Jiangong 燕簡公, Qi Jiangong 杞簡公, Zheng Jiangong 鄭簡公, Qi Jiangong 齊簡公, Chu Jianwang 楚簡王, Zhao Jianzi 趙簡子, Han Jianzi 韓簡子, Jin Jianwendi 晉簡文帝, Liang Jianwendi 梁簡文帝 |
| 節 jie "the Integer" | Beiwei Jiemindi 北魏節閔帝 |
| 敬 jing "the Honorable" | Zhou Jingwang 周敬王, Wei Jinggong 衛敬公, Zhao Jinghou 趙敬侯, Han Jingzong 漢敬宗, Liang Jingdi 梁敬帝, Beiwei Jingzong 北魏敬宗, Tang Jingzong 唐敬宗 |
| 景 jing "the Luminous" | Zhou Jingwang 周景王, Qin Jinggong 秦景公, Lu Jinggong 魯景公, Cai Jinggong 蔡景公, Song Jinggong 宋景公, Qi Jinggong 齊景公, Jin Jinggong 晉景公, Zhao Jingzi 趙景子, Wei Jingminwang 魏景湣王, Han Jinghou 韓景侯, Han Jingdi 漢景帝, Wu Jingdi 吳景帝, Cheng-Han Jingdi 成漢景帝, Qianyan Jingzhaodi 前燕景昭帝, Qianqin Jingmingdi 前秦景明帝, Houqin Jingyuandi 後秦景元帝, Nanliang Jingwang 南涼景王, Nanliang Jingwang 南涼景王, Beiliang Jiankanggong 北涼建康公, Min Jingzong 閩景宗, Liao Jingzong 遼景宗, Xixia Jingzong 西夏景宗 |
| 靜 jing "the Tranquil" | Jin Jinggong 晉靜公, Dongwei Xiaojingdi 東魏孝靜帝, Beizhou Jingdi 北周靜帝 |
| 靚 jing "the Quiet" | Zhou Shenjingwang 周慎靚王 |
| 靖 jing "the XXX" | Qi Jinggong 杞靖公, Cao Jinggong 曹靖公, Wei Jingbo 衛靖伯, Jin Jinghou 晉靖侯 |
| 康 kang "the Strong" | Zhou Kangwang 周康王, Qin Kanggong 秦康公, Lu Kanggong 魯康公, Zheng Kanggong 鄭康公, Qi Kangong 齊康公, Chu Kangwang 楚康王, Han Kangzi 韓康子, Jin Kangdi 晉康帝, Nanliang Kangwang 南涼康王, Beiliang Jiankanggong 北涼建康公, Min Kangzong 閩康宗 |
| 考 kao "the Deceased" | Zhou Kaowang 周考王, Chu Kaoliewang 楚考烈王 |
| 匡 kuang "the Corrector" | Zhou Kuangwang 周匡王 |
| 厲 li "the Severe" | Zhou Liwang 周厲王, Qin Ligong 秦厲公, Chen Ligong 陳厲公, Lu Ligong 魯厲公, Cai Lihou 蔡厲侯, Song Ligong 宋厲公, Zheng Ligong 鄭厲公, Qi Ligong 齊厲公, Jin Lihou 晉厲侯, Jin Ligong 晉厲公 |
| 理 li "the Well-ordered" | Song Lizong 宋理宗 |
| 烈 lie "the Eminent" | Zhou Weiliewang 周威烈王, Zhou Liewang 周烈王, Chu Kaoliewang 楚考烈王, Jin Liegong 晉烈公, Wei Liezu 魏烈祖, Zhao Liehou 趙烈侯, Han Liehou 韓烈侯, Shu Zhaoliedi 蜀昭烈帝, Jin Liezong 晉烈宗, Qianzhao Liezong 前趙烈宗, Qianyan Liezu 前燕烈祖, Nanhan Liezong 南漢烈宗, Houyan Liezu 後燕烈祖, Houyan Liezong 後燕烈宗, Qianqin Zhuangliewang 前秦莊烈王, Xiqin Xuanliewang 西秦宣烈王, Xiqin Liezu 西秦烈祖, Qianliang Chengliewang 前涼成烈王, Xia Wuliedi 夏武烈帝, Nanliang Liezu 南涼烈祖, Beiwei Liedi 北魏烈帝, Wu Liezu 吳烈祖, Nantang Liezu 南唐烈祖 |
| 靈 ling "the Clever" | Zhou Lingwang 周靈王, Qin Linggong 秦靈公, Chen Linggong 陳靈公, Cai Linggong 蔡靈公, Wei Linggong 衛靈公, Zheng Linggong 鄭靈公, Qi Linggong 齊靈公, Jin Linggong 晉靈公, Chu Lingwang 楚靈王, Zhao Wulingwang 趙武靈王, Han Lingdi 漢靈帝, Houliang Lingdi 後涼靈帝 |
| 湣 min "the Grievable" | (Lu), HOUTANG, combination 節閔 jiemin: BEIWEI, 孝閔 xiaomin: BEIZHOU |
| 愍 min "the Commiserated" | Jin Mindi 晉愍帝 |
| 湣 min "the Confused" | Chen Mingong 陳湣公, Yan Mingong 燕湣公, Lu Mingong 魯湣公 (or 閔公), Song Mingong 宋湣公, Qi Minwang 齊湣王, Wei Jingminwang 魏景湣王 |
| 閔 min "the XXX" | Qi Mingong 杞閔公, Song Mingong 宋閔公, Houyan Huimindi 後燕惠閔皇帝, Beiwei Jiemindi 北魏節閔帝, Beizhou Xiaomindi 北周孝閔帝, Houtang Minzong 後唐閔宗 |
| 明 ming "the Luminous" | Han Mingdi 漢明帝, Wei Mingdi 魏明帝, Jin Mingdi 晉明帝, Houzhao Mingdi 後趙明帝, Qianyan Wenmingdi 前燕文明帝, Qianqin Jingmingdi 前秦景明帝, Qianliang Mingwang 前涼明王, Song Mingdi 宋明帝, Qi Mingdi 齊明帝, Liang Mingdi 梁明帝, Beiwei Mingyuandi 北魏明元帝, Beiwei Xiaomingdi 北魏孝明帝, Beizhou Mingdi 北周明帝, Sui Mingdi 隋明帝, Tang Minghuang 唐明皇 or Tang Mingdi 唐明帝, Houtang Mingzong 後唐明宗, Yuan Mingzong 元明宗 |
| 穆 mu "the Respectful" | Zhou Muwang 周穆王, Qin Mugong 秦穆公, Chen Mugong 陳穆公, Yan Muhou 燕穆侯 (or Mouhou 繆侯), Lu Mugong 魯穆公, Cai Mugong 蔡穆公, Song Mugong 宋穆公, Cao Mugong 曹穆公, Wei Mugong 衛穆公, Zheng Mugong 鄭穆公, Jin Muhou 晉穆侯, Chu Muwang 楚穆王, Zhao Youmuwang 趙幽繆王, Han Muzong 漢穆宗, Jin Mudi 晉穆帝, Qianliang Wumuwang 前涼武穆王, Beiwei Mudi 北魏穆帝, Tang Muzong 唐穆宗, Chu Wumuwang 楚武穆王, Wu-Yue Wenmuwang 吳越文穆王, Liao Muzong 遼穆宗, Ming Muzong 明穆宗, Qing Muzong 清穆宗 |
| 赧 nan "the Embarrassed" | Zhou Nanwang 周赧王 |
| 寧 ning "the Peaceful" | Qin Ninggong 秦寧公, Song Ningzong 宋寧宗, Yuan Ningzong 元寧宗 |
| 平 ping "the Appeaser" | Zhou Pingwang 周平王, Chen Pinggong 陳平公, Yan Pinggong 燕平公, Qi Pinggong 杞平公， Lu Pinggong 魯平公, Cai Pinggong 蔡平公, Song Pinggong 宋平公, Cao Pinggong 曹平公, Wei Pinghou 衛平侯, Qi Pinggong 齊平公, Jin Pinggong 晉平公, Chu Pingwang 楚平王, Han Pingdi 漢平帝, Qianqin Aipingdi 前秦哀平帝, Beiwei Pingdi 北魏平帝, Beiwei Pingwendi 北魏平文帝 |
| 欽 qin "the Respected" | Song Qinzong 宋欽宗 |
| 頃 qing "the Inclined" | Zhou Qingwang 周頃王, Yan Qinghou 燕頃侯, Lu Qinggong 魯頃公, Wei Qinghou 衛頃侯, Qi Qinggong 齊頃公, Jin Qinggong 晉頃公, Chu Qingxiangwang 楚頃襄王 |
| 仁 ren "the Human" | Song Renzong 宋仁宗, Xiliao Renzong 西遼仁宗, Xixia Renzong 西夏仁宗, Yuan Renzong 元仁宗, Ming Renzong 明
仁宗, Qing Renzong 清仁宗 |
| 睿 rui "the Wise" | Tang Ruizong 唐睿宗, Wu Ruidi 吳睿帝, Beihan Huizong 北漢睿宗, Yuan Ruizong 元睿宗 |
| 殤 shang "Young Deceased" | Song Shanggong 宋殤公, Wei Shanggong 衛殤公, Han Shangdi 漢殤帝, Tang Shangdi 唐殤帝, Nanhan Shangdi 南漢殤帝 |
| 神 shen "the Godlike" | Beiwei Shenyuandi 北魏神元帝, Song Shenzong 宋神宗, Xixia Shenzong 西夏神宗, Ming Shenzong 明神宗 |
| 慎 shen "the Careful" | Zhou Shenjingwang 周慎靚王, Chen Shengong 陳慎公, Wei Shengong 衛慎公 |
| 聖 sheng "the Holy" | Beiwei Shengwudi 北魏聖武帝, Liao Shengzong 遼聖宗, Qing Shengzu 清聖祖 |
| 聲 sheng "the Famous" | Cai Shenggong 蔡聲公, Cao Shenggong 曹聲公, Wei Shenggong 衛聲公, Zheng Shenggong 鄭聲公, Chu Shengwang 楚聲王 |
| 順 shun "the Obedient" | Han Shundi 漢順帝, Song Shundi 宋順帝, Tang Shunzong 唐順宗, Yuan Shundi 元順帝 |
| 思 si "the Thoughtful" | Zhou Siwang 周思王, Beiwei Sidi 北魏思帝, Ming Sizong 明思宗 |
| 肅 su "the Reverential" | Chu Suwang 楚肅王, Zhao Suhou 趙肅侯, Han Suzong 漢肅宗, Jin Suzong 晉肅宗, Beiwei Suzong 北魏肅宗, Tang Suzong 唐肅宗, Wu-Yue Wusuwang 吳越武肅王 |
| 太 tai "the Grand" | Beiwei Taiwudi 北魏太武帝 |
| 統 tong "the Encompassing" | Han Tongzong 漢統宗 |
| 威 wei "the Mighty" | Zhou Weiliewang 周威烈王, Xizhou Weigong 西周威公, Qi Weiwang 齊威王, Chu Weiwang 楚威王, Han Weizong 漢威宗, Xiyan Weidi 西燕威帝, Qianliang Weiwang 前涼威王 |
| 文 wen "the Cultured" | Zhou Wenwang 周文王, Qin Wengong 秦文公, Qin Huiwenwang 秦惠文王, Qin Xiaowenwang 秦孝文王, Chen Wengong 陳文公, Yan Wengong 燕文公, Qi Wengong 杞文公， Lu Wengong 魯文公, Cai Wengong 蔡文公, Song Wengong 宋文公, Cao Wengong 曹文公, Wei Huigong 衛惠公, Wei Wengong 衛文公, Zheng Wengong 鄭文公, Qi Wengong 齊文公, Jin Wenhou 晉文侯, Jin Wengong 晉文公, Chu Wenwang 楚文王, Zhao Wuwenzi 趙武文子, Zhao Huiwenwang 趙惠文王, Wei Wenhou 魏文侯, Han Wenhou 韓文侯, Han Wendi 漢文帝, Wei Wendi 魏文帝, Jin Jianwendi 晉簡文帝, Cheng-Han Zhaowendi 成漢昭文, Qianzhao Guangwendi 前趙光文帝, Qianyan Wenmingdi 前燕文明帝, Houyan Zhaowendi 後燕昭文帝, Beiyan Wenchengdi 北燕文成帝, Houqin Wenhuandi 後秦文桓帝, Xiqin Wenzhaowang 西秦文昭王, Qianliang Wenwang 前涼文王, Qiuchi Huiwenwang 仇池惠文王, Song Wendi 宋文帝, Liang Jianwendi 梁簡文帝, Chen Wendi 陳文帝, Beiwei Wendi 北魏文帝, Beiwei Pingwendi 北魏平文帝, Beiwei Wenchengdi 北魏文成帝, Beiwei Xianwendi 北魏獻文帝, Beiwei Xiaowendi 北魏孝文帝, Xiwei Wendi 西魏文帝, Beiqi Wenxuandi 北齊文宣帝, Sui Wendi 隋文帝, Tang Wenzong 唐文宗, Jingnan Wenxianwang 荊南文獻王, Chu Wenzhaowang 楚文昭王, Wu-Yue Wenmuwang 吳越文穆王, Yuan Wenzong 元文宗, Qing Wenzong 清文宗 |
| 武 wu "the Martial" | Zhou Wuwang 周武王, Xizhou Wugong 西周武公, Qin Wugong 秦武公, Qin Wuwang 秦武王, Chen Wugong 陳武公, Yan Wugong 燕武公, Yan Wuchengwang 燕武成王, Qi Wugong 杞武公, Lu Wugong 魯武公, Cai Wuhou 蔡武侯, Song Wugong 宋武公, Cao Wugong 曹武公, Wei Wugong 衛武公, Zheng Wugong 鄭武公, Qi Wugong 齊武公, Jin Wuhou 晉武侯, Jin Wugong 晉武公, Chu Wuwang 楚武王, Zhongshan Wugong 中山武公, Zhao Wuwenzi 趙武文子, Zhao Wuhou 趙武侯, Zhao Wulingwang 趙武靈王, Wei Wuzi 魏武子, Wei Wuhou 魏武侯, Han Wuzi 韓武子, Han Wudi 漢武帝, Han Guangwudi 漢光武帝, Wei Wudi 魏武帝, Jin Wudi 晉武帝, Jin Xiaowudi 晉孝武帝, Cheng-Han Wudi 成漢武帝, Qianzhao Zhaowudi 前趙昭武帝, Houzhao Wudi 後趙武帝, Qianyan Wuxuandi 前燕武宣帝, Houyan Wuchengdi 後燕武成帝, Houyan Chengwudi 後燕成武帝, Houyan Zhaowudi 後燕昭武帝, Nanyan Xianwudi 南燕獻武帝, Qianqin Huiwudi 前秦惠武帝, Houqin Zhaowudi 後秦昭武帝, Houqin Wuzhaodi 後秦武昭帝, Xiqin Wuyuanwang 西秦武元王, Xia Wuliedi 夏武烈帝, Qianliang Wumuwang 前涼武穆王, Houliang Yiwudi 後涼懿武帝, Xiliang Zhaowuwang 西涼昭武王, Xiliang Wuzhaowang 西涼武昭王, Beiliang Wuxuanwang 北涼武宣王, Qiuchi Wuwang 仇池武王, Song Wudi 宋武帝, Song Xiaowudi 宋孝武帝, Qi Wudi 齊武帝, Liang Wudi 梁武帝, Chen Wudi 陳武帝, Beiwei Shengwudi 北魏聖武帝, Beiwei Daowudi 北魏道武帝, Beiwei Taiwudi 北魏太武帝, Beiwei Xiaowudi 北魏孝武帝, Beiwei Xuanwudi 北魏宣武帝, Beizhou Wudi 北周武帝, Beiqi Wuchengdi 北齊武成帝, Tang Wuzong 唐武宗, Jingnan Wuxinwang 荊南武信王, Beihan Yingwudi 北漢英武帝, Chu Wumuwang 楚武穆王, Wu-Yue Wusuwang 吳越武肅王, Yuan Wuzong 元武宗, Ming Wuzong 明武宗 |
| 釐 xi "the Blessed" | Chen Xigong 陳釐公, Yan Xihou 燕釐侯, Yan Xigong 燕釐公, Qi Xigong 杞釐公 (or 僖公), Cai Xihou 蔡釐侯 (or 僖侯), Song Xigong 宋釐公 (or 僖公), Cao Xigong 曹釐公 (or 僖公), Wei Xihou 衛釐侯 (or 僖侯), Zheng Xigong 鄭釐公 (or 僖公), Qi Xigong 齊釐公 (or 僖公), Jin Xihou 晉釐侯 (or 僖侯), Wei Anxiwang 魏安釐王, Han Xiwang 韓釐王 |
| 僖 xi "the Joyful" | Zhou Xiwang 周僖王, Chen Xigong 陳僖公, Tang Xizong 唐僖宗, error for 釐 xi "the Blessed" |
| 熙 xi "the Brilliant" | Jin Xizong 金熙宗 |
| 熹 xi "the Dawning" | Ming Xizong 明熹宗 |
| 顯 xian "the Clear" | Zhou Xianwang 周顯王, Han Xianzong 漢顯宗, Jin Xianzong 晉顯宗, Beiwei Xianzu 北魏顯祖, Beiqi Xianzu 北齊顯祖 |
| 獻 xian "the Dedicated" | Qin Xiangong 秦獻公, Yan Xiangong 燕獻公, Lu Xiangong 魯獻公, Wei Xiangong 衛獻公, Zheng Xiangong 鄭獻公, Qi Xiangong 齊獻公, Jin Xianhou 晉獻侯, Jin Xiangong 晉獻公, Zhao Xianzi 趙獻子, Wei Xianzi 魏獻子, Han Xianzi 韓獻子, Han Xiandi 漢獻帝, Nanyan Xianwudi 南燕獻武帝, Beiwei Xianwendi 北魏獻文帝, Jingnan Wenxianwang 荊南文獻王, Wu-Yue Zhongxianwang 吳越忠獻王, Xixia Xianzong 西夏獻宗 |
| 憲 xian "the Intelligent" | Tang Xianzong 唐憲宗, Yuan Xianzong 元憲宗, Ming Xianzong 明憲宗 |
| 襄 xiang "the Accomplisher" | Zhou Xiangwang 周襄王, Qin Xiangong 秦襄公, Qin Zhaoxiangwang 秦昭襄王, Qin Zhuangxiangwang 秦莊襄王, Yan Xianggong 燕襄公, Lu Xianggong 魯襄公, Song Xianggong 宋襄公, Cao Xianggong 曹襄公, Wei Xianggong 衛襄公, Zheng Xianggong 鄭襄公, Qi Xianggong 齊襄公, Qi Xiangwang 齊襄王, Jin Xianggong 晉襄公, Chu Qingxiangwang 楚頃襄王, Zhao Xiangzi 趙襄子, Zhao Daoxiangwang 趙悼襄王, Wei Xiangwang 魏襄王, Han Xiangwang 韓襄王, Xixia Xiangzong 西夏襄宗 |
| 孝 xiao "the Filal" | Zhou Xiaowang 周孝王, Qin Xiaogong 秦孝公, Qin Xiaowenwang 秦孝文王, Chen Xiaogong 陳孝公, Yan Xiaogong 燕孝公, Yan Xiaowang 燕孝王, Qi Xiaogong 杞孝公， Lu Xiaogong 魯考公, Cao Xiaobo 曹孝伯, Wei Xiaobo 衛孝伯, Qi Xiaogong 齊孝公, Jin Xiaohou 晉孝侯, Jin Xiaogong 晉孝公, Zhao Xiaochengwang 趙孝成王, Jin Xiaozong 晉孝宗, Jin Xiaowudi 晉孝武帝, Qiuchi Xiaozhaowang 仇池孝昭王, Song Xiaowudi 宋孝武帝, Beiwei Xiaomingdi 北魏孝明帝, Beiwei Xiaowendi 北魏孝文帝, Beiwei Xiaowudi 北魏孝武帝, Beiwei Xiaozhuangdi 北魏孝莊帝, Dongwei Xiaojingdi 東魏孝靜帝, Beizhou Xiaomindi 北周孝閔帝, Beiqi Xiaozhaodi 北齊孝昭帝, Chu Gongxiaowang 楚恭孝王, Song Xiaozong 宋孝宗, Ming Xiaozong 明孝宗/span> |
| 信 xin "the Trustful" | Jingnan Wuxinwang 荊南武信王 |
| 興 xing "the Prosperous" | Liao Xingzong 遼興宗 |
| 休 xiu "the XXX" | Song Xiugong 宋休公 |
| 繻 xu "the XXX" | Zheng Xugong 鄭繻公 |
| 宣 xuan "the Propagator" | Zhou Xuanwang 周宣王, Qin Xuangong 秦宣公, Chen Xuangong 陳宣公, Yan Xuanhou 燕宣侯, Yan Xuangong 燕宣公, Lu Xuangong 魯宣公, Cai Xuangong 蔡宣公, Song Xuangong 宋宣公, Cao Xuangong 曹宣公, Wei Xuangong 衛宣公, Qi Xuangong 齊宣公, Qi Xuanwang 齊宣王, Chu Xuanwang 楚宣王, Han Xuanzi 韓宣子, Han Xuanhuiwang 韓宣惠王, Han Xuandi 漢宣帝, Qianyan Wuxuandi 前燕武宣帝, Qianqin Xuanzhaodi 前秦宣昭帝, Xiqin Xuanliewang 西秦宣烈王, Beiliang Wuxuanwang 北涼武宣王, Liang Xuandi 梁宣帝, Chen Xuandi 陳宣帝, Beiwei Xuanwudi 北魏宣武帝, Beizhou Xuandi 北周宣帝, Beiqi Wenxuandi 北齊文宣帝, Tang Xuanzong 唐宣宗, (Northern) Liao Xuanzong 遼宣宗, Jin Xuanzong 金宣宗, Ming Xuanzong 明宣宗, Qing Xuanzong 清宣宗 |
| 玄 xuan "the Mysterious" | TANG |
| 玄 xuan "the Mysterious" | Tang Xuanzong 唐玄宗 |
| 遜 xun "XXX" | Wu-Yue Zhongxunwang 吳越忠遜王 |
| 煬 yang "the Brilliant" | Lu Yanggong 魯煬公, Song Yanggong 宋煬公, Beiwei Yangdi 北魏煬帝, Sui Yangdi 隋煬帝 |
| 易 yi "the Amiable" | Yan Yiwang 燕易王 |
| 懿 yi "the Modest" | Zhou Yiwang 周懿王, Yan Yigong 燕懿公, Lu Yigong 魯懿公, Wei Yigong 衛懿公, Qi Yigong 齊懿公, Han Yihou 韓懿侯, Houyan Huiyidi 後燕惠懿帝, Houliang Yiwudi 後涼懿武帝, Tang Yizong 唐懿宗, Jingnan Zhenyiwang 荊南貞懿王, Wu-Yue Zhongyiwang 吳越忠懿王 |
| 夷 yi "the Respectful" | Zhou Yiwang 周夷王, Chen Yigong 陳夷公, Cai Yihou 蔡夷侯, Cao Yibo 曹夷伯 |
| 義 yi "the Kind" | Jin Yizong 金義宗 |
| 毅 yi "the Resolute" | Xixia Yizong 西夏毅宗 |
| 隱 yin "the Retiring" | Zhou Yinwang 周隱王, Qi Yingong 杞隱公, Lu Yingong 魯隱公, Cao Yingong 曹隱公, Qianzhao Yindi 前趙隱帝, Houhan Yindi 後漢隱帝, Houliang Yinwang 後涼隱王 |
| 英 ying "the Flowering" | Song Yingzong 宋英宗, Yuan Yingzong 元英宗, Ming Yingzong 明英宗, Beihan Yingwudi 北漢英武帝 |
| 幽 you "the Darkened" | Zhou Youwang 周幽王, Chen Yougong 陳幽公, Lu Yougong 魯幽公, Cao Youbo 曹幽伯, Zheng Yougong 鄭幽公, Jin Yougong 晉幽公, Chu Youwang 楚幽王, Zhao Youmuwang 趙幽繆王, Qianyan Youdi 前燕幽帝 |
| 元 yuan "the Originator" | Zhou Yuanwang 周元王, Lu Yuangong 魯元公, Cai Yuangong 蔡元公, Song Yuangong 宋元公, Wei Yuanjun 衛元君, Han Yuandi 漢元帝, Han Yuanzong 漢元宗, Wei Yuandi 魏元帝, Jin Yuandi 晉元帝, Houqin Jingyuandi 後秦景元帝, Xiqin Wuyuanwang 西秦武元王, Beiwei Shenyuandi 北魏神元帝, Liang Yuandi 梁元帝, Beiwei Mingyuandi 北魏明元帝 |
| 躁 zao "the Hot-tempered" | Qin Zaogong 秦躁公 |
| 章 zhang "the Exemplarious" | Han Zhangdi 漢章帝, Beiwei Zhangdi 北魏章帝, Jin Zhangzong 金章宗 |
| 昭 zhao "the Prominent" | Zhou Zhaowang 周昭王, Qin Zhaoxiangwang 秦昭襄王, Yan Zhaogong 燕昭公, Yan Zhaowang 燕昭王, Lu Zhaogong 魯昭公, Cai Zhaogong 蔡昭公, Song Zhaogong 宋昭公, Cao Zhaogong 曹昭公, Wei Zhaogong 衛昭公, Zheng Zhaogong 鄭昭公, Qi Zhaogong 齊昭公, Jin Zhaohou 晉昭侯, Jin Zhaogong 晉昭公, Chu Zhaowang 楚昭王, Wei Zhaozi 魏昭子, Wei Zhaowang 魏昭王, Han Zhaohou 韓昭侯, Han Zhaodi 漢昭帝, Shu Zhaoliedi 蜀昭烈帝, Qianzhao Zhaowudi 前趙昭武帝, Cheng-Han Zhaowendi 成漢昭文, Qianyan Jingzhaodi 前燕景昭帝, Houyan Zhaowudi 後燕昭武帝, Houyan Zhaowendi 後燕昭文帝, Beiyan Zhaochengdi 北燕昭成帝, Qianqin Xuanzhaodi 前秦宣昭帝, Houqin Zhaowudi 後秦昭武帝, Houqin Wuzhaodi 後秦武昭帝, Xiqin Wenzhaowang 西秦文昭王, Qianliang Zhaowang 前涼昭王, Xiliang Zhaowuwang 西涼昭武王, Xiliang Wuzhaowang 西涼武昭王, Qiuchi Xiaozhaowang 仇池孝昭王, Beiwei Zhaodi 北魏昭帝, Beiqi Xiaozhaodi 北齊孝昭帝, Tang Zhaozong 唐昭宗, Min Zhaowuwang 閩昭武王, Chu Wenzhaowang 楚文昭王, Yuan Zhaozong 元昭宗 |
| 哲 zhe "the Wise" | Song Zhezong 宋哲宗 |
| 貞 zhen "the Devoted" | Zhou Zhendingwang 周貞定王, Wei Zhenbo 衛貞伯, Han Zhenzi 韓貞子, Jingnan Zhenyiwang 荊南貞懿王 |
| 真 zhen "the True" | Lu Zhengong 魯真公, Song Zhenzong 宋真宗 |
| 質 zhi "the Elementarious" | Han Zhidi 漢質帝 |
| 忠 zhong "the Loyal" | Min Zhongyiwang 閩忠懿王, Wu-Yue Zhongxianwang 吳越忠獻王, Wu-Yue Zhongxunwang 吳越忠遜王, Wu-Yue Zhongyiwang 吳越忠懿王 |
| 莊 zhuang "the Dignified" | Zhou Zhuangwang 周莊王, Qin Zhuanggong 秦莊公, Qin Zhuangxiangwang 秦莊襄王, Chen Zhuangong 陳莊公, Yan Zhuanggong 燕莊公, Lu Zhuanggong 魯莊公, Cai Zhuanggong 蔡莊公, Song Zhuanggong 宋莊公, Cao Zhuanggong 曹莊公, Wei Zhuanggong 衛莊公 (1 and 2), Zheng Zhuanggong 鄭莊公, Qi Zhuanggong 齊莊公, Quwo Zhuangbo 曲沃莊伯, Chu Zhuangwang 楚莊王, Zhao Zhuangzi 趙莊子, Wei Zhuangzi 魏莊子, Han Zhuangzi 韓莊子, Han Zhuanghou 韓莊侯, Qianqin Zhuangliewang 前秦莊烈王, Beiwei Xiaozhuangdi 北魏孝莊帝, Houtang Zhuangzong 後唐莊宗 |
Sources:
Tang Jiahong 唐嘉弘 (ed. 1998). Zhongguo gudai dianzhang zhidu da cidian 中國古代典章制度大辭典, pp. 301, 331, 525, 552, 561, 728, 934. Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou guji chubanshe. (articles by Cao Shusen 曹樹森 and Chu Songbo 遲松波)
Wang Yankun 王彦坤 (ed. 1997). Lidai bihui zidian 歷代避諱字匯典. Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou guji chubanshe.
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